TAUCHEIRA / ARSINOE ~ AN ANCIENT GREEK CITY IN LIBYA

According to Greek researcher Herodotus of Halicarnassus, Taucheira (also known as Tauchira and Teuchira) was one of the five Greek cities in the Cyrenaica.He presents it rather matter-of-factly, as if it were an unimportant town. Excavation of the harbor area in the 1960s, however, has brought to light ceramics that are much older than expected (fourth quarter of the seventh century), and it is now obvious that the town in fact was one of the oldest Greek settlements in Africa.

The city, which was nominally independent but probably belonged to Cyrene informally, was built along a main road from the northwest to the southeast. To the southwest was Euesperides (modern Bengazi); to the east were Barca and Ptolemais, Cyrene, and Apollonia. Directly in front of the northeastern gate were the stone quarries where the characteristic, reddish limestone of Taucheira was found.

There were trade contacts between Taucheira and the Peloponnese, Corinth, and Athens. This can be deduced from the archaeological finds.

Hellenism

The towns of the Cyrenaica submitted to Alexander the Great in the winter of 332/331 BCE, and became part of the satrapy of Egypt. After Alexander's death, one of his commanders, Thibron, started a state of his own in the Cyrenaica, but he was expelled by Ophellas, a vice-commander serving Ptolemy I Soter.

Decree of Aleximachus

Ophellas founded a new port, Ptolemais, which must have been a very serious competitor for Taucheira. He was succeeded by a man named Magas, who made Cyrenaica independent again, but Ptolemy's grandson Ptolemy III Euergetes regained the region and renamed Taucheira Arsinoe, after his stepmother Arsinoe II.

In the first century BCE, when Ptolemaic power was crumbling and the Romans had not yet established control of this era, native tribes attacked Taucheira. An inscription in the little museum of Taucheira commemorates a man named Aleximachus son of Sostratus, who had provided the money to improve the walls of the city, and to import food during a famine.

Roman Empire

Arsinoe was to keep its name, although it was briefly to be called Cleopatris during the Roman civil wars, when Mark Antony wanted to honor his wife Cleopatra VII Philopator. During the Roman age, the city received the rank of colonia, but we know not much of its history. Still, several buildings can be identified, like a place where textiles were painted and the gymnasium.

Archaeological finds document the cults of Demeter and Kore. The cult of the Libyan deity Ammon is also attested, and we know that the Apollo, Dionysus, and the Phrygian goddess Cybele were venerated as well.

Byzantine Age

New walls were built by the emperor Justinian (r.527-565), who also fortified other cities in Libya and built nearby Theodorias (the overall project is known as Ananeosis). The massive walls of Taucheira/Arsinoe enabled the Byzantine commander Apollonius, when besieged by the Muslim forces who had invaded the Cyrenaica in 641, to hold out until 645. A fortress inside the city walls documents the presence of this garrison.


Although Taucheira/Arsinoe was small compared to Lepcis Magna and Cyrene, it had the longest history: from the seventh century BCE to the seventh century CE. Its modern-day name is Tocra.

Below there is a video about a discovery of ancient artefacts from the area of Tocra.

Source: Livius, YouTube

ALEXANDER IS LOWERED INTO THE SEA IN MUGHAL MANUSCRIPT

This image of Alexander the Great is part of a Folio from a Khamsa (Quintet) of Amir Khusrau Dihlavi. 1597–98.

The Khamsa of the Indian poet Amir Khusrau includes a section on the philosopher-king Alexander the Great, who in Khusrau’s telling of his life led expeditions to China, Russia, and the Western Isles. In this copy of the Khamsa made for the Mughal emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605), Alexander is shown being lowered into the sea in a glass diving bell. While underwater, he will receive a visit from an angel who foretells his death. 

Amir Khusrau is one of the most important Indian Sufi scholars and artists of the Munghal era. Alexander the Great and Plato have been featured in his works ( see another example here ),demonstrating the deep influence of the Greek legacy in India. 

Edited from : The MET Museum 

THE LYCIAN ALPHABET

Lycian was an Anatolian language spoken in what is now the Antalya region of Turkey up to about the 3rd Century BCE, when the Lycians adopted Greek as their language. Lycian is thought to have developed from Luwian, a language spoken in Asia Minor before the arrival of the Hittites (c. 18th century BCE), and was related to Lydian.

The Lycian alphabet was adapted from an archaic version of the Doric Greek alphabet. Only a few of the Lycian letters were original inventions, or possibly borrowed from other alphabets. Around 180 inscriptions in Lycian dating from the fifth and fourth centuries BCE have been found. As current knowledge of the language, particularly its grammar, is quite limited, not all the inscriptions have been fully deciphered.

Notable features
Type of writing system: alphabet
Writing direction: left to right in horizontal lines
Number of letters: 29 (23 consonants and 6 vowels)
Some letters have several variant forms
A colon-like symbol was generally used to separate words.

Source : https://www.omniglot.com/index.htm

PEUKOLAOS ~ GREEK KING OF GANDHARA

Peucolaus Soter Dikaios (Greek: Πευκόλαος ο Σωτήρ, ο Δίκαιος; epithets mean respectively, "the Saviour", "the Just") was an Indo-Greek king who ruled in the area of Gandhara  90 BCE. His reign was probably short and insignificant, since he left only a few coins, but the relations of the latter Indo-Greek kings remain largely obscure.

His name could be interpreted as "The man from Pushkalavati", an important Indo-Greek city east of Kabul.
Peucolaos struck rare Indian standard silver coins with portrait in diadem, and a reverse of a standing Zeus, which resemble the reverse of contemporary kings Heliokles II and Archebios. The latter has overstruck two coins of Peucolaos.

He also issued bilingual bronzes with Artemis and a crowned woman with a palm branch, perhaps a city-goddess or a personification of Tyche, the Greek Goddess of good luck.

Sources : coinsidia.com, Wikipedia`

LIFE -SIZED STATUE OF ZEUS DISCOVERED IN JERASH , JORDAN

An impressive human-size statue of the Greek God Zeus was discovered in October 2017 in the city of Jerash in Jordan. The statue of Zeus was found in a very good condition.

Another seven pieces of considerable-size stone statues were also discovered during the past year. Among the discoveries was a huge one of Aphrodite, the Greek Goddess of love and beauty,along with Eros.The statue of the Goddess which measures over 3 meters in height.

The exciting discoveries were part of excavation work conducted by an archaeological French-German mission, in coordination with the Department of Antiquities.

“We worked from 2016 until 2018 with a German, French and Jordanian team, and it was impossible without help from the French ministry of foreign affairs and the Gerda Henkel Foundation,” said Professor Thomas Weber-Karyotakis, head of the French team in Jerash.

 The sculpture of Zeus was forged with marble from northern Greece, said Weber-Karyotakis.

This monumental bathing complex — one of the largest and best preserved in the entire Orient — was built in the second half of the 2nd century CE in the valley of the Chrysorrhoas Brook, and then enlarged towards the end of that century or at the beginning of the following under the Severan emperors, the scholar elaborated.

The scholar said that this hall was reminiscent of the “imperial halls” of the Asia Minor, was decorated with sculptures according to numerous statue bases, most of which had Greek inscriptions. 

The aims of three excavations were to establish architectural connections between the bathing complex and the pillared hall and to find out more about the sculptural decoration scheme, Weber –Karyotakis said.

Edited from: The Jordan Times , Roya News   

APOLLODOTUS II ~ INDO-GREEK KING

Apollodotus II (Greek: Ἀπολλόδοτος Β΄) was an Indo-Greek king who ruled in the western and eastern parts of Punjab. Bopearachchi dates him to c. 80–65 BCE, and R. C. Senior to c. 85–65 BCE. Apollodotos II was an important ruler who seems to have re-established the Indo-Greek kingdom to some extent of its former glory.
Apollodotus II seems to have been a member of the dynasty of Menander I, since he used their typical deity Athena Alkidemos on most of his silver, and also Menander's title Soter (Greek: Σωτήρ, "the Saviour"), on all his coins. On some coins, he also calls himself Philopator (Greek: Φιλοπάτωρ, "the father-loving"), which proves that his father had been king before him. R.C. Senior guesses that Amyntas or Epander could have been his father.


Apollodotus' reign possibly began in the Punjab, when the Scythian king Maues ruled in Gandhara and its capital Taxila. What probably happened is that Apollodotus II took over Taxila after the death of Maues, though it is uncertain whether he defeated Maues or his descendants, or was allied or related to the dynasty of Maues. R.C. Senior suggests that Apollodotus had struck an alliance with another Scythian king, Azes I.

The Scythian hold on Gandhara loosened after the death of Maues, and petty kings of mixed or uncertain origin, like Artemidorus the son of Maues, Telephus and perhaps Menander II emerged in the area. These kings posed no threat to Apollodotus II, who on some of his coins assumed the title Basileus Megas (Greek: Βασιλεὺς Μέγας, "Great King"), in echo of Maues' boastful title "Great King of Kings".

After the death of Apollodotus II, the Indo-Greek kingdom fragmented once more.

Coinage

Apollodotus II issued a large number of coins. He struck silver with a diademed portrait on the obverse and a reverse of Athena Alkidemos, and also a unique coin with the reverse of a king, possibly Alexander the Great, sitting on a horned horse similar to Alexander's Bucephalus and holding his hand in a benediction gesture.

He struck bronzes with Apollo/tripod, a type introduced by his namesake Apollodotus I.

The coins of Apollodotus II are of different qualities. Some still have the realistic portraits characteristic of the earlier Indo-Greek coins, and Bopearachchi attributes these series to the western part of his kingdom. Others are badly struck and/or have clumsy and distorted portraits, and these Bopearachchi interprets as belonging to newly opened mints in eastern Punjab, presumably struck by Indian celators with little knowledge of Greek engraving skills.

On some of his coins there are both extra monograms in shape of Kharosthi letters. These monograms are interpreted, which was suggested already by W.W. Tarn, to have belonged to officials with Indian names. The coins therefore indicate that Apollodotus II relied more on his Indian subjects than earlier kings, and also opened new mints in Eastern Punjab, where Greek presence was scarce. 

Edited from: COININDIA, WIKIPEDIA

NICIAS ~ GREEK RULER IN INDIA

Nicias (Greek: Νικίας) was an Indo-Greek King who ruled in the Paropamisade. Most of his relatively few coins have been found in northern Pakistan, indicating that he ruled a smaller principate around the lower Kabul valley. He was possibly a relative of Menander I.

Bopearachchi suggests that Nikias ruled c. 90–85 BCE. This late date is supported by the absence of Attic coins.

R. C. Senior on the other hand places him as a successor of Menander,  135–125 BCE, according to his interpretation of hoard findings.

Regardless of which period is correct, the fact that Nicias ages visibly on his coins seems to indicate some longevity to his rule.

Nicias struck Indian silver drachms of diademed or helmeted king with three reverses:

A standing king in armour making a blessing gesture, found on several drachms.
An en-face version of Menander's Athena with thunderbolt is found on a unique tetradrachm.
The third reverse is a king on a prancing horse, as used by Antimachus II, found on a single drachm.
His bronzes feature Zeus/dolphin or portrait / king on prancing horse. Some varieties are crude with lunate sigmas and square omicrons. Even though Nikias ruled in the western parts of the Indo-Greek realm, no Attic coins have been found.

His monograms generally match those of the kings Theophilus and Philoxenus, though one is shared with Thrason, the short-lived son of Menander I.

Source: Wikipedia, coinsindia

ARABOS ~ THE SON OF GOD HERMES

In Hellenic Religion, Arabos was the son of the Greek God Hermes and Thronia, hence the name of the Arabs. History has proven this kinship between Greeks and Arabs ; Arabia was filled with Greek cities, something which is also supported by historians such as Diodorus Sicilus and Nonnus.

HYMN TO GODDESS ATHENA BY PROCLUS

The following video includes a Hymn to Goddess Athena, written by Proclus Lycaeus. Proclus, who was also called the Successor (Greek: Πρόκλος ο Διάδοχος), was a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher, one of the last major classical philosophers. He set forth one of the most elaborate and fully developed systems of Neoplatonism. He became the head of Plato's famous Academy of Athens.


 Proclus had a great devotion to the Goddess Athena, who he believed guided him at key moments in his life. Marinus reports that when christians removed the statue of the Goddess from the Parthenon, a beautiful woman appeared to Proclus in a dream and announced that the "Athenian Lady" wished to stay at his home. 

Below the video, the lyrics of the Hymn are available in Ancient Greek and English. 

Video- Reciting : Akiratos 

Lyrics in Ancient Greek

Κλῦθί μευ, αἰγιόχοιο Διὸς τέκος, ἡ γενετῆρος πηγῆς ἐκπροθοροῦσα καὶ ἀκροτάτης ἀπὸ σειρῆς· ἀρσενόθυμε, φέρασπι, μεγασθενές, ὀβριμοπάτρη, Παλλάς, Τριτογένεια, δορυσσόε, χρυσεοπήληξ, κέκλυθι· δέχνυσο δ᾽ ὕμνον ἐύφρονι, πότνια, θυμῷ, μηδ᾽ αὔτως ἀνέμοισιν ἐμόν ποτε μῦθον ἐάσῃς, ἡ σοφίης πετάσασα θεοστιβέας πυλεῶνας καὶ χθονίων δαμάσασα θεημάχα φῦλα Γιγάντων· ἣ πόθον Ἡφαίστοιο λιλαιομένοιο φυγοῦσα παρθενίης ἐφύλαξας ἑῆς ἀδάμαντα χαλινόν·   ἣ κραδίην ἐσάωσας ἀμιστύλλευτον ἄνακτος αἰθέρος ἐν γυάλοισι μεριζομένου ποτὲ Βάκχου Τιτήνων ὑπὸ χερσί, πόρες δέ ἑ πατρὶ φέρουσα, ὄφρα νέος βουλῇσιν ὑπ᾽ ἀρρήτοισι τοκῆος ἐκ Σεμέλης περὶ κόσμον ἀνηβήσῃ Διόνυσος· ἧς πέλεκυς, θήρεια ταμὼν προθέλυμνα κάρηνα, πανδερκοῦς Ἑκάτης παθέων ηὔνησε γενέθλην· ἣ κράτος ἤραο σεμνὸν ἐγερσιβρότων ἀρετάων· ἣ βίοτον κόσμησας ὅλον πολυειδέσι τέχναις δημιοεργείην νοερὴν ψυχαῖσι βαλοῦσα· ἣ λάχες ἀκροπόληα καθ᾽ ὑψιλόφοιο κολώνης, σύμβολον ἀκροτάτης μεγάλης σέο, πότνια, σειρῆς· ἣ χθόνα βωτιάνειραν ἐφίλαο, μητέρα βίβλων, πατροκασιγνήτοιο βιησαμένη πόθον ἱρόν, οὔνομα δ᾽ ἄστεϊ δῶκας ἔχειν σέο καὶ φρένας ἐσθλάς· ἔνθα μάχης ἀρίδηλον ὑπὸ σφυρὸν οὔρεος ἄκρον σῆμα καὶ ὀψιγόνοισιν ἀνεβλάστησας ἐλαίην, εὖτ᾽ ἐπὶ Κεκροπίδῃσι Ποσειδάωνος ἀρωγῇ μυρίον ἐκ πόντοιο κυκώμενον ἤλυθε κῦμα, πάντα πολυφλοίσβοισιν ἑοῖς ῥεέθροισιν ἱμάσσον. κλῦθί μευ, ἡ φάος ἁγνὸν ἀπαστράπτουσα προσώπου· δὸς δέ μοι ὄλβιον ὅρμον ἀλωομένῳ περὶ γαῖαν, δὸς ψυχῇ φάος ἁγνὸν ἀπ᾽ εὐιέρων σέο μύθων καὶ σοφίην καὶ ἔρωτα· μένος δ᾽ ἔμπνευσον ἔρωτι τοσσάτιον καὶ τοῖον, ὅσον χθονίων ἀπὸ κόλπων αὖ ἐρύσῃ πρὸς Ὄλυμπον ἐς ἤθεα πατρὸς ἐῆος. εἰ δέ τις ἀμπλακίη με κακὴ βιότοιο δαμάζει— οἶδα γάρ, ὡς πολλοῖσιν ἐρίχθομαι ἄλλοθεν ἄλλαις πρήξεσιν οὐχ ὁσίαις, τὰς ἤλιτον ἄφρονι θυμῷ—, ἵλαθι, μειλιχόβουλε, σαόμβροτε, μηδέ μ᾽ ἐάσῃς ῥιγεδαναῖς Ποιναῖσιν ἕλωρ καὶ κύρμα γενέσθαι κείμενον ἐν δαπέδοισιν, ὅτι τεὸς εὔχομαι εἶναι. δὸς γυίοις μελέων σταθερὴν καὶ ἀπήμον᾽ ὑγείην, σαρκοτακῶν δ᾽ ἀπέλαυνε πικρῶν ἀγελάσματα νούσων,   ναί, λίτομαι, βασίλεια, καὶ ἀμβροσίῃ σέο χειρὶ παῦσον ὅλην κακότητα μελαινάων ὀδυνάων. δὸς βιότῳ πλώοντι γαληνιόωντας ἀήτας, τέκνα, λέχος, κλέος, ὄλβον, ἐυφροσύνην ἐρατεινήν, πειθώ, στωμυλίην φιλίης, νόον ἀγκυλομήτην, κάρτος ἐπ᾽ ἀντιβίοισι, προεδρίην ἐνὶ λαοῖς. κέκλυθι, κέκλυθ᾽, ἄνασσα· πολύλλιστος δέ σ᾽ ἱκάνω χρειοῖ ἀναγκαίῃ· σὺ δὲ μείλιχον οὖας ὑπόσχες.  

Lyrics in English
Daughter of aegis-bearing Zeus, divine,

  Propitious to Thy votaries prayer incline;

  From thy great Father's fount supremely bright,

  Like fire resounding, leaping into light.

  Shield-bearing Goddess, hear, to whom belong

  A manly mind, and power to tame the strong!

  Oh, sprung from matchless might, with joyful mind

  Accept this hymn; benevolent and kind!

  The holy gates of wisdom by Thy hand

  Are wide unfolded; and the daring band

  Of earth-born giants, that in impious fight

  Strove with Thy sire, were vanquished by Thy might.

  Once by Thy care, as sacred poets sing,

  The heart of Bacchus, swiftly-slaughtered king,

  Was saved in aether, when, with fury fired,

  The Titans fell against His life conspired;

  And with relentless rage and thirst for gore,

  Their hands His members into fragments tore:

  But ever watchful of Thy Father's will,

  Thy power preserved him from succeeding ill,

  Till from the secret counsels of His sire,

  And born from Semele through heavenly fire,

  Great Dionysos to the world at length

  Again appeared with renovated strength.

  Once, too, Thy warlike axe, with matchless sway,

  Lopped from their savage necks the heads away

  Of furious beasts, and thus the pests destroyed

  Which long all-seeing Hecate annoyed.

  By Thee benevolent great Hera's might

  Was roused, to furnish mortals with delight:

  And through life's wide and various range 'tis Thine

  Each part to beautify with arts divine:

  Invigorated hence by Thee, we find

  A demiurgic impulse in the mind.

  Towers proudly raised, and for protection strong,

  To Thee, dread guardian, deity belong,

  As proper symbols of the exalted height

  Thy series claims amidst the courts of light.

  Lands are beloved by Thee to learning prone,

  And Athens, O Athena, is Thy own!

  Great goddess, hear! and on my darkened mind

  Pour Thy pure light in measure unconfined;

  - That sacred light, O all-protecting Queen,

  Which beams eternal from Thy face serene:

  My soul, while wandering on the earth, inspire

  With Thy own blessed and impulsive fire;

  And from Thy fables, mystic and divine,

  Give all her powers with holy light to shine.

  Give love, give wisdom, and a power to love,

  Incessant tending to the realms above;

  Such as, unconscious of base earth's control,

  Gently attracts the vice-subduing soul;

  From night's dark region aids her to retire,

  And once more gain the palace of her sire:

  And if on me some just misfortune press,

  Remove the affliction, and Thy suppliant bless.

  All-Saving Goddess, to my prayer incline!

  Nor let those horrid punishments be mine

  Which guilty souls in Tartarus confine,

  With fetters fastened to its brazen floors,

  And locked by hell's tremendous iron doors.

  Hear me, and save (for power is all thy own)

  A soul desirous to be Thine alone.

Sources : Wikipedia, φιλοσοφούμεν γνησίως τε και ικανώς , The Encyclopedia of Goddess Athena

JERASH ~ A HELLENISTIC CITY IN JORDAN

Ancient Greek inscriptions establish the foundation of the city as being by Alexander the Great or his general Perdiccas, who settled aged Macedonian soldiers there (Gerasa=Old) during the spring of 331 BCE, when Alexander left Egypt, crossed Syria and then went to Mesopotamia. However, other sources, namely the city's former name of 'Antioch on the Chrysorrhoas', point to a founding by Seleucid King Antioch IV, while still others attribute the founding to Ptolemy II of Egypt.

After the Roman conquest in 63 BCE, Jerash and the land surrounding it were annexed to the Roman province of Syria, and later joined the Decapolis league of cities. The historian Josephus mentions the city as being principally inhabited by Syrians, and also having a small Jewish community. In 106 CE, Jerash was absorbed into the Roman province of Arabia, which included the city of Philadelphia (modern- day Amman). The Romans ensured security and peace in this area, which enabled its people to devote their efforts and time to economic development and encouraged civic building activity.

Jerash is considered one of the largest and most well-preserved sites of Roman architecture in the world outside Italy. It is sometimes misleadingly referred to as the "Pompeii of the Middle East" or of Asia, referring to its size, extent of excavation and level of preservation.

Jerash was the birthplace of the mathematician Nicomachus of Gerasa (Greek: Νικόμαχος) (60 CE – 120 CE).

In the second half of the 1st century CE, the city of Jerash achieved great prosperity. In 106 CE, the Emperor Trajan constructed roads throughout the province, and more trade came to Jerash. The Emperor Hadrian visited the city in 129–130 CE. The triumphal arch (or Arch of Hadrian) was built to celebrate his visit.

Source: Wikipedia 

MENANDER II DIKAIOS ~ GREEK KING IN INDIA

Menander II Dikaios (Greek: Μένανδρος Β΄ ο Δίκαιος; epithet means "the Just") was an Indo-Greek King who ruled in the areas of Arachosia and Gandhara in the north of modern Pakistan.

Time of reign

Bopearachchi has suggested that Menander II reigned c. 90–85 BCE.

Menander II Dikaios may have belonged to the dynasty of Menander I Soter, the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings. It was long believed that there was only one king named Menander (see discussion under Menander I) as their portraits were rather similar and Menander II seems to have been a devout Buddhist, just as Menander I was, according to the ancient Buddhist scripture the Milindapanha.

The name Menander could well have been popular in the Indo-Greek kingdom, and the coins of Menander II are not very like those of Menander I nor of those other kings (such as Strato I) who are believed to have belonged to his dynasty. R. C. Senior links Menander II with the Indo-Greek king Amyntas, with whom he shares several monograms and also facial features such as a pointed nose and receding chin. He also suggests a close relation to the king Artemidorus, son of Maues, since their coins use similar types and are often found together.

The coins of Menander II bear the mention "Menander the Just", and "King of the Dharma" in Kharoshti, suggesting that he adopted the Buddhist faith. Menander II struck only Indian silver. These depict the king in diadem or helmet of the type of Menander I, with a number of reverses: a king on horseback, Nike and a sitting Zeus of the type of Antialkidas and Amyntas Nikator, but with an eight-spoked Buddhist wheel instead of the small elephant.

His bronzes feature Goddess Athena standing, with spear and palm-branch, shield at Her feet, making a benediction gesture with the right hand, similar to the Buddhist vitarka mudra. Other varieties feature a king performing the same gesture.

On the reverse there is a Greek lion , as also seen on the pillars of the Mauryan King Ashoka. In general, the coins of Menander II are quite few, which tends to indicate a rather small rule.

A contemporary king who used the image of a lion on his coins is the Indo-Scythian king Maues, around 85 BCE.

Edited from: Wikipedia, coinindia

RAQQA ~ A CITY FOUNDED BY SELEUCUS

Raqqa (Arabic: الرقة‎ ar-Raqqah), also called Raqa, Rakka and ar-Raqqah, is a city in Syria located on the northeast bank of the Euphrates River, about 160 kilometres east of Aleppo. It is located 40 kilometres east of the Tabqa Dam, Syria's largest dam. The Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine city was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate between 796 and 809, under the reign of Harun al-Rashid. It was also the capital of isil between 2014 and 2017 under abu bakr al-baghdadi. Raqqa is one of largest cities in Syria.

The modern city traces its history to the Hellenistic period, with the foundation of the city of Nikephorion (Ancient Greek: Νικηφόριον, Latinized as Nicephorion or Nicephorium) by the Seleucid King Seleucus I Nicator (reigned 301–281 BCE). His successor, Seleucus II Callinicus (r. 246–225 BCE), enlarged the city and renamed it after himself as Kallinikos (Καλλίνικος, Latinized as Callinicum). Isidore of Charax, in the Parthian Stations, writes that it was a Greek city, founded by Alexander the Great.

In Roman times, it was part of the Roman province of Osrhoene, but it had declined by the 4th century. Rebuilt by Byzantine Emperor Leo I (r. 457–474 CE) in 466, it was named Leontopolis (in Greek Λεοντόπολις or "city of Leon") after him, but the name Kallinikos prevailed. The city played an important role in the Byzantine Empire's relation with Sasanid Persia and the wars fought between the two empires. By treaty, the city was recognized as one of the few official cross-border trading posts between the two empires, along with Nisibis and Artaxata.

The town was near the site of a battle in 531 CE between the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanid Empire, when the latter tried to invade the Byzantine territories, surprisingly via arid regions in Syria, in order to turn the tide of the Iberian War. The Persians won the battle, but the casualties on both sides were high. In 542 CE, the city was destroyed by the Persian Emperor Khusrau I (r. 531–579), who razed its fortifications and deported its population to Persia, but it was subsequently rebuilt by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565). In 580, during another war with Persia, the future Emperor Maurice scored a victory over the Persians near the city during his retreat from an abortive expedition to capture Ctesiphon.

Source: Wikipedia

THE COINS OF THE GREEK AND SCYTHIAN KINGS IN BACTRIA AND INDIA FULL BOOK PDF

A book of the British Museum about the royal coinage of the Greek and Scythian Kings in Bactria and India .
For those who wish to read it, it's available below, in pdf form for free. We should point out that this is a quite old edition; therefore the some names,  are written in a different manner- for example, the name of Kanishka is written as 'Kanirkes'. This is probably because the pronunciation of the letter ϸ (sometimes called sho or san), which was a letter added to the Greek alphabet which was used in the writing of the Bactrian language, was still not clear during the time when this book was written.

Click here:  THE COINS OF THE GREEK AND SCYTHIANS  KINGS IN BACTRIA AND INDIA