ZEUS, HERA , APHRODITE AND ATHENA DEPICTED IN BOWL FOUND IN INNER MONGOLIA, ~ CHINA

 

The Yihe-Nur Cemetery, excavated in 2012-2014,is important as the northernmost Northern Wei Dynasty (े兿) cemetery so far discovered in China, with artefacts indicating connections with peoples of 

the steppe and more broadly along the Eurasian “silk roads.“

One of the most striking artefacts of all those excavated in the cemetery, this bowl, found in Tomb M1, is 14 cm in diameter and stands 4 cm high. The inside is smooth and has no decoration. The outside is framed by a pearllike band, and most of the surface covered by acanthus leaves in low relief set off against a gilded background. Four projecting “bosses” depict characters from Greek religion: Zeus, Hera, Aphrodite and Athena.

SOURCE silkroadfoundation.org

GREEK ELECTRUM COIN ~ MYSIA CYZICUS

 

Mysia, Cyzicus.Hekte,circa 500-450 BCE.

Obv: Tuna fish  between 2 dolphins. Rev: Quadripartite incuse square.

Starting in the first half of the 6th century BCE, the electrum staters of Cyzicus became one of the most widely recognized Greek coins of their time. For many decades, the transactions of the entire trade in grain in the Black Sea Region were done with coins such as this one.  The prominence and popularity of this coinage was perhaps one of the reasons why Cyzicus was free from the restrictions placed upon other member states of the Delian League from minting their own currency, and was able to continue creating its aesthetic and highly varied coins.

The Cyzicus electrum staters corresponded to 24 or 25 Attic drachms, making this coin, a hekte, worth about as much as an Attic tetradrachm. The dolphins symbolize Poseidon, the God of the sea.  As the brother of Zeus, Poseidon is among the most powerful of the Olympian Gods. The tuna is shown between the dolphins, because tuna fishing was fundamental in the economy of Cyzicus- therefore it definitely deserved a prominent place on its coinage. 

IMPRINTS OF GREEKS IN JAMMU ~ KASHMIR

In the ancient local traditions there is mention of one Abhisara named king of Poonch and Nowshera, who is believed to have held Jammu and Kashmir during the times of Alexander the Great.

He is recorded to have surrendered to Alexander and then Porus was appointed in charge of the whole area which Alexander had conquered. The area lay between the Beas and the Jhelum. The King of Texila, Ambhi was given the territories west of Jhelum while Abhisara’s authority was extended up to Kashmir.

We don't have many details available about king Abhisara . In fact, he is being mentioned in classical history literatures, but his authority over Kashmir is not testified by any other source. However, Alexander’s numismatic finds in Jammu and Kashmir provide certain clues of his campaign of the areas bordering Jammu and Kashmir and the possibility of his visit of the land which since times immemorial was attractive for its visitors.

In fact, there are several ancient events and evidence related with several ancient Greek Kings found in Jammu and Kashmir. Abhishara is recorded to have been the king of Nowshera and Poonch when Alexander invaded the empire of Porus. There are several villages and towns of Jammu and Kashmir which have Greek origin. The historic town of Menander in the same District is believed and to have been founded in the name of Menendra, the most famous Indo-Greek King who had his capital at Sangla in present-day Sailkote which is only few kilometers from R.S. Pura Jammu. There is a lot of numismatic and historical evidence about Menander in Jammu and Kashmir. Demetrious and Menandra are recorded to have enjoyed their political authority on the lands which included parts south of Kashmir as well.

The stone ruins  and the basement of some stone structures are found scattered on a plateau at Sakhi Madian Village of Mender. While there are possibilities of finding of some more evidence related to King Menander, the site is yet to undergo any scientific exploration- so nothing can be said in advance. However, in the local folklore, there are various interesting stories related with this site. As far as its surface evidence is concerned, there are remains of some built structures under its debris.

One more interesting story of ancient Greeks is related with Baffaliyaz, a small town of the district Poonch, which is situated on the historic Mughal road. An interesting  story  about this place states that it is the place where the Alexander lost his cherished horse, Bucephalus, during his expeditions towards Indian subcontinent.

Most of the people are well aware of Alexander the Great. He is well mentioned in the folk traditions of Jammu and Kashmir and is here known by the name of Sikinder Azam. His one of the battles which he fought with Raja Porus is also very much popular among the local story tellers. There are also various Persian literary works about Alexander. These works are titled as Sikander Nama and such works are housed in various museums, archival repositories and libraries of Jammu and Kashmir.

There is one such well preserved manuscript of Sikander Nama housed in Dogra Art Museum at Jammu. This manuscript gives us a detailed description of adventures which he went on, towards east and west.

Besides, coins of Alexander have also been found in Jammu and Kashmir and few of the ancient Macedonian coins are also housed in the numismatic collection at SPS Museum Srinagar.

One of the interesting pieces of coin depicting the battle scene of Alexander and Porus is also preserved in the numismatic collections of the British Museum.

Historically speaking, Sikander Azam is known by the name of the Alexander the Great, and plenty of historical accounts are available, which tell us the story of Indian expeditions of this Macedonian king.

An oral tradition preserved here states that the battle between Alexander and Porus took place somewhere near the olden town of Poonch. Several Kashmiri scholars identify a village in Poonch District of the Jammu and Kashmir called Baffaliyaz, located in the lap of Pirpanchal as the place named after the beloved horse of Alexander. They cliam Baffaliyaz as the corrupt form of Buccaphalus. Mohammad Yousuf Taing, the eminent historian and author in one of his articles published in Kashmiri Shiraza has claimed that Baffaliyaz is the corrupt form of Buccaphalus. And it is the place where Sikinder lost his cherished horse named Bucephalus during a fight with Porus. In fact Alexander was encountered by Porus in Dravabhisar in the lower belt of the River Jhelum. The area has been identified as that of Poonch region. We cannot be absolutely certain about the credibility of this story. But if Baffailyaz is named after the name of Buccaphalus then the fight may have taken place somewhere near Poonch, which is one of the olden towns of the Jammu and Kashmir and mentioned in the olden indigenous and foreign records as well.

Indian traditions record that Porus was one of many local kings who impressed Alexander. He was asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated. “Treat me, Alexander, the way a King treats another King”, Porus responded.

Alexander was very much excited by his brave reply and instead of bringing any kind of harm to him; he rewarded him by granting more empires to him. He later founded Alexandria Nikaia (Victory), located at the battle site, to commemorate his triumph. He also founded Bucephalus on the opposite bank of the river in memory of his much-cherished horse, Bucephalus, who carried Alexander through the Indian subcontinent and died heroically during the Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum). The local scholars have been identifying Baffaliyaz with Buceaphalus , the site fist founded by Alexander in the name of his horse.

The Menender and Baffaliyaz are two most famous sites traditionally related with ancient Greeks, but so far no archaeological expeditions have taken place. The Archaeology Department and Jammu University shall under take archaeological exploration of this valley.

However, it is worth noting that  there are reports that ancient Greek evidence have been found in Jammu. Dr. Michael Matcher, in his monumental numismatic book classical world has attributed several Greek coins to Jammu and Kashmir section of his book. He has claimed that these coins have come from Jammu region. Besides it is also presumed that Jammu has been included into the Indo -Greek empire during the rule of king Menandra, who is known to have set up his capital at Sangla present day Sailkote.

Edited by article of  Iqbal Ahmad

ALEXANDER THE GREAT ~ GREEK GOLD COIN OF KING LYSIMACHOS

 

One of the most beautiful known portraits of Alexander the Great, in gold.

This stunning gold stater minted under King Lysimachos depicts one of the earliest known portraits of Alexander the Great, in superb Hellenistic style, dating to 297 - 281 BCΕ.

The obverse shows the now deified King, Alexander the Great. He is shown facing right, his wild, unruly hair held down by a thin diadem, the horn of Ammon curling over his ear, clearly identifying him as Alexander.

The reverse with the Goddess Athena enthroned left, holding Nike in Her extended right hand, resting left elbow on shield with aegis. The legend reading:

  ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΛΥΣΙΜΑΧΟΥ ~~ VASILEOS LYSIMACHOU

"Of King Lysimachos"

These coins, apart from their practical use at the time, were also meant to demonstrate  Lysimachos' connection to Alexander and thus, his legitimacy to rule. Today ,the surviving examples are admired and collected as beautiful artworks depicting one of history's greatest men.

This is an outstanding example of this hugely desirable type, arguably preserving the most artistically accomplished image of Alexander known from these coins, an apparently unrecorded reverse variety but from the same obverse die as the famous Nelson Bunker Hunt example.

HERACLES SHAKING HANDS WITH ANTIOCHUS I OF COMMAGENE

Stone relief from Arsameia (Nemrut region, Turkey) depicting Antiochus I of Commagene shaking hands with Heracles (r. 70–38 BCE). The Commagenian ruler is shown wearing a belted tunic, cloak and a four-lobed dagger. Herakles carries His club and the skin of the Nemean Lion.

HERACLES AND OMPHALE ON A GREEK SILVER ORNAMENT FOUND IN MONGOLIA

 

Ancient Greek silver artifact depicting Hercules and Omphale, discovered from the burial of a member of Xiongnu nobility during an excavation in 2006, in Mongolia. The original artifact is currently being kept in the collection of the Institute of Archeology at the Mongolian Academy of Sciences.

 It was cast during the Xiongnu period, from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE. Originally attached to decorative dishes, etc., it was used to decorate Mongolian horse equipment. A truly stunning example of the presence of Greek Art in the depths of Asia 2000 years ago.

STATUE OF HERACLES ~ SELEUCIA ON TIGRIS IRAQ

A statue representing Herakles (Hercules), made of bronze found in Seleucia in southern Baghdad, Iraq. The statue dates back to the Hellenistic period (321-139 BCE).

In the spring of 1984 the Iraq Museum acquired this inscribed bronze copy of Lysippos'"Weary Herakles," which had recently been found by chance in the ruins of Seleucia. On the right thigh there is a complete Greek inscription recording Vologeses IV's removal of the statue from Mesene  to the temple of Apollo in Seleucia.The left thigh has a damaged inscription in Parthian providing the same information, with some minor variations.

Greek and Parthian script, lower part of the bronze statuette of Hercules.

SURKH KOTAL INSCRIPTION IN GREEK SCRIPT ~ SAR -I-CHASHMA ~ BAGHLAN PROVINCE ~ AFGHANISTAN

A 25-line inscription came to light on the fourth terrace. Written in the Bactrian language in cursive Greek script, this significant find unlocked what little we know about the Kushans. It refers to repairs made when the temple was burned during a period of civil unrest following King Kanishka's death c. 140 CE. Another 50 blocks with fragmentary Greek script mention lining a well at the foot of the hill. The temple was finally abandoned during the 3rd century CE with the coming of the Persian Sasanians. In 1993 a similar inscription was accidentally found by mujahideen digging a trench at Robatak (Little Fort), not so very far north of Surkh Kotal. It also relates to the reign of King Kanishka.

Photo: Louis Dupree

Source Afghanistan center at Kaboul University

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THE SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION IN ASIA

The ancient Macedonians followed Alexander all the way to India and assisted him to build his empire which survived -divided into smaller ones- for three centuries after his death (in 323 B.C.E) These three post-Alexander centuries are called by scholars as the German Droysen, Hellenistic Era, to distinguish it from the Greek classical period.

Excavations of archeological sites in Asia, from Syria all the way to Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and India, bring recently to light the post-Alexander world. As reported by ancient historians and proved now by the archeologists, the Hellenistic era is characterized by “the spread of the Greek civilization to the Orient”, as Tarn said, achieved by the Macedonian successors of Alexander and resulting from two main factors: the many Greek cities built by Alexander and his successors and the ecumenism of the Greek language. What was the force that propelled it?

The excavations also demonstrate the influence of the Greek culture on the arts and civilizations of Asia and vice versa.

The findings reveal also that the elements of the Greek civilization were voluntarily adopted by the local people for many centuries after the Greeks left Asia, as for example the Kushan art and especially the Gandhara art, named by the French specialists, Graeco-Buddhist.

After many years of excavations and studies, only recently, the last 15 years, have we begun to realize how historically important are the archeological findings in Asia, especially those done by the French archeologists, who keep excavating systematically since the beginning of 1900. Today those who are mostly known are Professors Paul Bernard, Pierre Leriche, Osmund Bopearachchi, Jean Yves Empereur, Edward Rtveladze and several others of different countries, Mrs. Souvaltzi among them, who operate excavations in Asia and Egypt.

The seed of Hellenic civilization brought about a sort of renaissance in Asia that changed the cultural identity of the Asian world. The archeologists have lightened up the persistent use of the Greek language in Asia that made the civilization universal for many centuries (ten in the Middle East), until Islam arrived and beyond.

Professor Mostafa El-Abbadi of the University of Alexandria writes in his book “The Ancient Library of Alexandria” (UNESCO, Paris 1992) that more than a century after the Arab conquest, Damascus and Alexandria continued to use the Greek as the official state language (from 331 B.C. to 750 A.D.). This remarkable persistence was mainly due to the post-Alexander Macedonian kings and little reference is made to this.

According to Plutarch, Alexander built seventy cities named “Alexandria”,  nine of which were in Bactria (today’s Afghanistan, south Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan) at the East end of his kingdom. Originally they were built as fortresses, but some of them were developed later as great commercial and cultural centers spreading the Greek civilization to the peoples of Asia. Many more cities were built later by King Seleucus 1st the Nikator,  Alexander’s general who established the Seleucid Empire in Asia after Alexander’s death, and by another general, Ptolemy and his heirs in his kingdom in Egypt (total, about 200 Greek cities). 

Some of them are known well, a few only by name, and others have been excavated without the archeologists knowing their names.

Certain cities became large commercial and cultural centers in the long East-West routes in Asia, later known as the Silk Road, and greatly affected their surrounding territories. The many stretched routes, created to facilitate communications between cities , increased the commercial and cultural exchanges between various people from the Mediterranean to India, making the Greek language a necessary tool of communication among people and a channel for spreading the Greek civilization.

Other Greek settlers migrated to the new cities, bringing with them knowledge, new ways of life and Greek art. Many indigenous people who were Hellenized also contributed to the perpetuation of the Greek culture. A good example is the architect Apollodor from Damascus who built the Rome’s Forum. Other examples of Greek influence on local cities are the Arab city of Petra with Greek architecture, the Aramaic city of Palmyra of the Roman period, with Greek architecture and Greek official language.

The most important characteristic of the Greek civilization in Asia, which was disseminated by the Hellenistic cities, was the fact that it did not replace or abolish the local civilizations. Preserving their own culture, the people of the Orient adopted the Greek civilization to a degree that was desirable or necessary for their intellectual or commercial exchanges. The presence of large theaters excavated in the Hellenistic and Greco-Roman cities, for instance,  the theater in Gerasa  show that the local people understood Greek and the Greek plays since there were no translations at those times.

Also, many local cities had adopted Greek as their official written language. The universality of the Greek language also helped the spread of Christianity later.

The best known Greek cities in the Middle East are: Alexandria of Egypt, rich capital of the Ptolemy’s kingdom (the most important commercial and cultural center of the Hellenic world, where Alexander was buried, as Dr. Souvaltzi developed and where the two cultures, the Greek and the Egyptian merged. Other important Greek cities are Ephesus, Antioch (the “Paris” of the Middle East according to Gibbon, both cities rich, glamorous and illuminated at night), Dion, Pella, Edessa, Veria, Laodiceia, Doura-Europos, Philippoupolis (today Aman), Apamea, Chalkis, Herakleia etc. Many of them have names of cities in Macedonia, or of other Greek cities, of Greek Gods or of king’s family. The Greek language in these cities was used until the arrival of Islam and beyond.

The Greek presence was so strong, especially in Syria -where so many Hellenistic cities had been built-that Strabon calls it “small Macedonia” in his description, as Professor Leriche mentioned. Some of these cities are excavated by him personally.

During the Roman period that followed the Hellenistic Era, the cities continued to maintain their Hellenistic identity, some of them became rich, and exhibited grandiose architecture with graceful Corinthian pillars, wide streets and beautiful mosaics.

The second great center of Hellenistic civilization was Bactria, in Central Asia. The Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms developed there, with forty Greek kings ruling the region in succession, as far deep inside India, for three centuries. The Greek Kings  established some Greek cities and introduced the Greek coins in these areas (some of the attic type) with Greek Gods on the reverse.

Thousands of coins were discovered showing the Greek cultural influence, the high level of civilization, the wealth of the area and the Hellenic influence on the cultural and economic life of the local people, as Professor Bopearachchi reported .

Ai Khanum in North Afghanistan, near the Tajikistan border, is the only Hellenistic city excavated almost entirely, by the French archeological expedition, under the supervision of the Academician, Professor Paul Bernard.It is an impressive and very characteristic city that furnished archaeological precious information relative to the Oriental Hellenistic cities. 

Built on the strategic passage to Tatzikistan, Ai Khanum is an example of genuine, solid Hellenistic city with Greek architecture and institutions, a huge majestic structure with the characteristic central avenue, an Acropolis, Temple of Zeus, Palace, Theatre, Gymnasium dedicated to Hercules, Library, public fountains, statues, Greek pillars, and philosophical epigrams carved on the city’s monuments, based on Delphic Maxims. The city cleverly blended the local elements with the Hellenic civilization.

The Kushan Empire of local people, who replaced later the Greco-Bactrian kingdoms in the region, adopted the Greek alphabet and elements of the Greek art and themes.

Also, the Greco-Buddhist Art of Gandhara, showing statues of Buddha with the face of Apollo, and Hercules and Alexander on his sides . All of these arts prove the preference of the local artists for  the Hellenistic civilization. Unfortunately, the Ai Khanum archeological site, like so many other sites and museums, has been plundered for many years.

The grand era in Asia and Egypt, named Hellenistic Era or Hellenism of the Orient as French Professor Sclumberger called it, with its special civilization, was created by the power, resiliency, and spirit of the Hellenic civilization that was easily and peacefully amalgamated with the Asian and Egyptian ones. A remarkable result of this amalgamation was a new art, the Hellenistic Art whose creation was the Greco-Buddhist Art of Gandhara, expressing the Buddhist theme with Hellenic style.

The spread of the Greek civilization in the Orient by the Macedonians demonstrates their Greek cultural identity, the proof of which lies in the excavated cities in Asia and also in the strong memories of Alexander the Greek and the Greek civilization, which are still alive in Central Asia, especially among people in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Uzbekistan.

Some populations in the region still wear the Kausia, the Macedonian hat, revere Greece and the Greek culture and claim they are of Alexander’s descent.! Even Marco Polo reports it in his book in 1200.

The Hellenistic Era would not have occurred had not been for the contribution of Alexander’s Macedonians, who were Greeks. The Seleucids, the Ptolemies have worked to establish it. The force that propelled it was Hellenism, a concept expressed by Droysen, wrapped within a single word: Hellenismus. If Alexander and his Macedonians were not possessed by the power of Greek pride, there would have been no Hellenistic Era, no matter how many experts from other Greek cities-states followed the Macedonians to the depths of Asia.

 Despite the fighting among the post-Alexander kingdoms, their solid Hellenism remained intact. There was not a single voice in or for any other language than Greek. The panhellenic spirit followed the Macedonians to the Orient.  In Ai Khanum they lived with philosophical Delphic maxims while in Luxor in Egypt they carved their names on the columns, all of them in Greek.

Some people in Central Asia still think of Alexander the Greek and his Greeks from Macedonia who brought to them the Hellenic civilization. Some towns in Uzbekistan add the name Iskenderia (Alexandria) to their own (Odil Saidikramov, “Uzbekistan”), proud of having been on Alexander’s way to India and of having received elements of the Greek culture which they still greatly respect. They say Hair for hello, the Greek word Haire, among many others used in these regions.

In Asia, the Greek civilization spread by the Greeks enriched and influenced the local cultures and finally blended with them. It is a great achievement and besides, it proves the Greek cultural identity of the ancient Macedonians.

 Edited from the paper of Dr. Potitsa Grigoratou – Parnassos  from the Proceedings of the International Conference “Hellenistic Culture in the East”

SOURCE elinepa.org