DEMETRIUS II ~ KING OF INDIA

Demetrius II (Greek: Δημήτριος Β΄) was a Greco-Bactrian/Indo-Greek king who ruled briefly during the 2nd century BCE. Little is known about him and there are different views about how to date him. Earlier authors such as Tarn and Narain saw him as a son and sub-king of Demetrius I, but this view has now been abandoned.

Osmund Bopearachchi has suggested that he ruled in Bactria and Arachosia c. 175–170 BCE, but this has been challenged by later authors. R. C. Senior instead prefers c. 175–140 BCE, and this is supported by L M Wilson,

 who also assumes from numismatical clues and portrait likeness that Demetrius II was a relative of Eucratides the Great. The later dating is supported by the circumstance that no coins of Demetrius II have been found in the ruins of Ai Khanoum, which was presumably destroyed during the reign of Eucratides I.
History records one reference to a king Demetrius contemporary with Eucratides, and this reference is highly problematic.

Roman historian Justin names a Demetrius, king of the Indians, who was an enemy of Eucratides the Great. Justin's Demetrius beleaguered the warlike Eucratides with an army of 60,000 men against the latter's garrison of 300, but still — according to the probably exaggerated account — eventually was defeated. This episode is referred to as occurring at the end of the reign of Eucratides, hence dating the death of Justin's Demetrius around 150 BCE. Justin's Demetrius may have been a relative of the Indian king Apollodotus I or a fugitive prince of the Euthydemid dynasty.

However, the king of Justin's quote is not easily reconciled with the numismatical evidence, and views are divided as for how to interpret the various coinage series bearing the name Demetrius. Bopearachchi (1991) has singled out three kings named Demetrius. Demetrius I reigned c. 200-185 BCE, well before the rise of Eucratides, and Demetrius III was an Indian king who is thought to have ruled much later, around 100 BCE. There remains Demetrius II, who Bopearachchi suggested reigned around 170 BCE.
Bopearachchi continues to identify Demetrius II with Justin’s Demetrius of India, notwithstanding the fact that Justin's quote suggests a later reign. Furthermore, Bopearachchi’s Demetrius II reigned in Bactria and not in India, as he struck no coins with Indian legends. Therefore, the identity of Justin's Demetrius, king of the Indians, remains uncertain. The following hypotheses may be considered:

The account of Justin, who is a second-hand source, is confused. Either Demetrius II was not king of India but Bactria, or the account of the war is mixed up, or the king's name is wrong, Justin having confused the name of another Indo-Greek king with that of Demetrius I.
Bopearachchi's Demetrius III could be placed earlier - this king's coins are few and rather peculiar - and Demetrius III was in fact Justin's Demetrius who ruled half a century earlier.
Even if Justin's Demetrius, king of the Indians existed, this does not foreclose the possibility that Eucratides also had a son named Demetrius, which was a common dynastic name at the time. The prince may have been named after the Seleucid Demetrius I Soter.

Demetrius II issued only silver and mostly tetradrachms, another trait which he has in common with the last Bactrian kings. The obverse shows a diademed portrait, with a standing Pallas Athena holding a spear on the reverse. Unlike most of his contemporaries, he has no epithet. Demetrius II is depicted as a young man, though his features differ considerably among the different issues. Several coins are struck off-center and crudely; this suggests that Demetrius II used a number of temporary mints.

SOURCE: Wikipedia 

GREEK GENES AT PAKISTAN

These days there is considerable interest in Punjab’s archives, with scholars from all over invariably complaining about not being able to find rare manuscripts while in Lahore. I jokingly tell them to go to the old horse stables inside the Punjab Secretariat, where one day the letter from Mirza Ghalib pleading with the East India Company for restoration of his royal pension, was found on the floor. The head clerk invariably queries just what do you want with these useless old pieces of paper. In true Lahori style I told him what to do with them. He did not lodge a complaint because the head of department was equally puzzled.

An effort has been made to digitise them after we broke the ‘horse stable story’. But then they are not available online, at least not till the writing of these lines. In any sane society this would be considered blasphemy, a word used with much caution in our pious times. Now one hopes the pursuit of knowledge will get some priority, after all Mr Jinnah wished a fifth of our national wealth be spent on educating the poor.

But in this piece let us go back to the times when the Greeks came to our land. Dr Gul Rahim tells me that for 500 years after Alexander all coins had Greek markings, and that those in Lahore are well established, with proof available in the Lahore Museum. He reels off Greek names of the rulers of Lahore and the Punjab, whose influence had had a profound effect on who we are today.

Lahore had Greek rulers, or in the later years Punjabi rulers with considerable Greek DNA. Even today Punjabis have some DNA, and that is to be understood. Then this meant that there was considerable trade between Lahore and Multan and Greece, which documents tell us a lot about. So, in this piece, let me touch upon ancient coins that were used in the bazaars of Lahore, on the Greek DNA that a lot of Lahoris carry, and on some aspects of trade between Lahore and Greece.

One set of coins that can be seen in the Lahore Museum are of the western Kshatrapa ruler Bhratadarman (278-455 CE), which are basically post-Mauryan which were minted in Gandhara. They have Greek markings on one side. Next comes the Gupta period Kumara Gupta the First (414-295 CE) and these coins, found near Lahore, have Greek on one side and Brahmi on the other. Right up to the Buddhist period, when Lahore was a pure Buddhist city, the silver drachms was used with Greek markings.

Experts tell us that for 500 years till the end of the 300 CE, all coins used had Greek markings.

We know that during the Kushan period of Kanishka, they adopted the Bactrian language written in the Greek script. Amazingly this prevailed with the 6th century CE. We have already in a past column referred to Greek markings on the Turk Shahi rulers of Kabul who ruled over Lahore till 850 CE. So Greek coins and script were with us for a fairly long period.

Now let us turn to our DNA. Just what has been the Greek contribution to our genetic construct? The United Nations has carried out two very interesting DNA studies of the people of Pakistan over the last 20 years. The first one was by a Rome-based agency that was tracing the roots of Punjab’s ‘gypsies’. The second survey was a very big exercise that took samples from 100 persons from a segment and Pakistan was divided into 300 segments. So statistically, given a 2.5% variation, it was a reasonably sound methodology.

This was part of a huge study to understand on genetic markers like Y-DNA of the entire subcontinent so as to estimate Greek contribution to the genetic pool. The results were amazing, for on the average it was estimated that Greek markers existed in approximately 15 per cent of the population. The subcontinent as a whole had three per cent contribution, with the KP areas with Afghanistan having as high as 22 per cent. Lahore had an average of just seven per cent, Taxila had 11 per cent and Peshawar a whopping 18 per cent. North Waziristan, where a major battle was fought by Alexander, had a massive 23 per cent. So as the Greeks moved to the east, the genetic contribution decreased, and that makes sense.

Now let us end this piece by mentioning the trade links between Greece and the Punjab, more so Lahore. Naturally, as the military power of the Greeks diminished in the north, it was the discovery of huge markets that saw Greek ships sail up the Indus towards Multan and Lahore.

Manuscripts of the historian Strabo tell us that Greek trade up the Ravi started in the reign of Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE. These tell us that by the reign of Augustus nearly 120 ships left for India from Myos Hormos, which today could be the Roman port at Al-Qusayr on the Red Sea in Egypt. He says that most of them went up the Indus and its feeding rivers as they were secure for Greek trade. They used gold and incense to purchase spices and cotton fabrics which, according to the chronicler Pliny managed to increase the wealth of traders five-fold.

It seems Greek gold coins influenced those made in the Punjab, especially by the Kushans. Amazingly, there are references that Greek middlemen lived in a lot of Punjab cities. As the Hindu population of the Punjab avoided sailing for religious reasons, it seems almost all the captains of ships were Greek just as all the middlemen were.

Interestingly, a lot of Greek artwork also came to the lands over which Greek influence was dominant. Examples of these can be seen in archaeological excavations in Pakistan and Afghanistan. If you visit the Lahore Museum you will be amazed at the influence of Greek sculptures on that of the subcontinent.

Many moons ago as a student hitch-hiking from Lahore to London, at the Greek border we experienced a sort of ‘culture shock’ as the ceremonial border guards looked almost like the Khyber Rifle dancers of the KP. So it is no surprise that all of us have a wee bit of Greek DNA, our clothes and even our jewellery has traces of Greek artwork. My thanks to Prof Dr Gul Rahim Khan from Peshawar for enlightening me. Now I can dig deeper into world’s unknown.

Published in https://www.dawn.com/, August 19th, 2018

THE HELLENISTIC COINAGE OF THE PONTIC KINGDOM

The history of the Pontic Kingdom coinage probably began during the reign of Mithridates II of the Kingdom of Pontus. Early Pontic coinage imitated the coins which had portraits of Alexander the Great. Later ones are well known for their high degree of realism in the depictions of the Pontic kings, who were proud of their Iranian ancestry.  However, Mithridates V and his son Mithridates VI partially abandoned oriental influences in their own coin portraits. Especially the rule of Mithridates VI and his wars resulted in a wide expansion in the number of mints and struck coinage. Mithridates VI dated most of his coins by the Bithynian year and by month and this has facilitated research. 

Evolution of Pontic coinage

Prior to the Kingdom of Pontus, the Pontic region had autonomous cities with Greek background,which were mostly coastal. The mints were were almost exclusively in Greek colonies.

It is likely that the first coinage of the Kingdom was struck during Mithridates II's reign, which is said to have lasted from 255 BC to 220 BCE. The first Pontic coins imitated the coins with Alexander the Great's image on them. Mithridates III had issued a substantial amount of silver coinage by the end of his reign. He was also the first Pontic ruler to have a coin with his own portrait.

There was a distinction between royal and city coinage. Royal coins were gold and silver. They also had the king's image and name. Coinage autonomously struck  by cities was bronze and had the name of the city on the reverse. These city coins were discontinued for period of  time, as the cities lost their autonomy under the reign of Pharnakes I. Mithridates VI restored the privilege of the cities to have their own coinage, but he retained some control, as can be deducted from the standardization of local coinage.

The coin portraits of the Pontic kings are very well made; only Greco-Bactrian coinage is minted in such a realistic detail. Greek engravers were hired to carve coin dies used in the minting process. The ruling Dynasty of Pontus were very proud of their Iranian descent, and the portraits clearly show their oriental features. Mithridates III struck a coin with God Zeus holding an eagle on one side, and the other side portrayed himself as a non-idealized bearded old man with short hair. It was customary to have more realistic coin portraits in the east. However, the Pontic dynasty had married early in the Seleucid royal line and despite the ruling dynasty's Iranian origins, the Pontic state is deeply Hellenistic. 

Pontic portraiture generally developed outside the typical Hellenistic art.Mithridates V was the first king who had a relatively idealized coin portrait of himself. The trend was further developed by his son Mithridates VI. This may have started from the desire of Mithridates V to demonstrate his Greek side more than his oriental background.

Late Hellenistic Pontic coins have been found around the Mediterranean. This may indicate mobility of people and goods from the period contemporary with the Pontic kingdom. Pontic coinage has been found in coin hoards together with other Hellenistic coinage. Such hoards have been found from the Near East and in south-eastern Anatolia. Pontic coins were probably widely accepted in the eastern Mediterranean region. The Kingdom of Bosporus was governed after its conquest by a son of Mithridates VI. Pontic coinage has been found on the northern shores of the Black Sea.

Coinage during Mithridates VI's reign

It has been suggested that Mithridates VI's policy allowed more isolated cities of the Kingdom from the central Black Sea region to profit. His goal may have been to bring a sense of unity to these urban centres. He allowed the most important cities to have their own copper coinage. For a brief period of time, Amaseia became the only Pontic city allowed to strike its own silver and gold coinage. Mithridates VI allowed this as a reward for the city's service to him. He also encouraged mints managed by temples.

Mithridates VI imitated Alexander the Great in his coin portraits. He is depicted as a young man with flowing hair, long sideburns, a prominent nose and a narrow forehead. His hair and eyes are in a style similar to what we see in coin images of Alexander. Mithridates' coinage represents the late Pontic style,which leaves behind the oriental tradition of non-idealized images of kings. The new style is closer to the Hellenistic coinage.

The most common  image on Mithridates VI's coins is a grazing animal ( usually a Pegasus or a stag) together with a star and a crescent- these can be found in various denominations. Ivy leaves and grapes are also included in the scene.It has been suggested that after the Kingdom of Pontus expanded westward under his reign, the image of Pegasus was abandoned and coins with a stag started to appear. Mithridates VI included scenes from the story of Perseus in some coins- this was done in order for him to emphasize his dual ancestry between Greece and Persia.Perseus is considered as the forefather of the Persian people.

The First and Second Mithridatic Wars were preceded by heavy minting. However, after the Second war all minting ceased. During the wars between Rome and Pontus, Mithridates VI funded his military campaigns by introducing copper and brass as new financial sources for the Pontic state. Both materials are useful for overvalued coinage. Pure copper coinage may have been meant to partly substitute silver coinage. It is also possible that copper coins were meant for use in the region of Cimmerian Bosporus.

Brass coinage

Brass is an alloy that was used relatively rarely in ancient times. Phrygia is the only region with a recorded regular use of brass from antiquity. Phrygia and Bithynia are known sources for Pontic brass coinage. Pontic brass coins were struck during the reign of Mithridates VI, and he can be regarded as the first ruler to make use of brass. Modern analysis has revealed that some of his bronze coins are in fact made from brass.

One study that analyzed Pontic and Celtic brass coins found out that selenium is an important impurity as it can be used to track down ore sources from the eastern parts of the classical world. Use of brass gradually spread towards the west.

Mints

There were mints in the cities of Amisos, Pharnaceia, Trapezus and Sinope. At the time of Mithridates VI the number of cities minting coins drastically increased. Cities such as Amaseia, Abonutheichos, Cabeira, Chabakta, Comana, Gaziura, Laodikeia and Taulara. Only Gaziura, of these cities, had minted coins in the past.

Edited from : Wikiwand

GREEK PTOLEMAIC COINS IN ISRAEL

Silver Tetradrachms with the vessel in which they were found at Tel Dor, Israel. Dating from the Ptolemaic Period, 3rd century BCE.

Ptolemy I Soter (367-283 BCE) Greek General of Alexander the Great and Pharaoh of Egypt and Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309-246 BCE) King of Egypt. Now in the Mizgaga Museum, Nahsholim, Israel. Photo: Zev Radovan

SOURCE : egyptblog

SHIELD OF PHARNAKES ~ KING OF PONTUS

This round shield is decorated with an embossed 6-rayed star with a central circle; two concentric relief lines surround the star and frame a Greek inscription that reads, Basileus Pharnakou (of King Pharnakes). The inscription refers to Pharnakes I, who ruled Pontos (a region on the southeast coast of the Black Sea) in the 2nd century BCE. Created from a very thin sheet of metal, this shield would have originally been supported by a base of wood or leather. The rim has a serrated edge and four evenly spaced rectangular tabs that may have been folded over to secure the internal support structure. 

Macedonian shields with inscriptions bearing the name of the king have been discovered in the sanctuaries of Zeus at Dodona and Dion as well as at Vergora (Florina), Bonce (in ancient Pelagonia), and Orestis (modern Kastoria), all located in northern Greece and Macedonia. Shields of this type may have belonged to soldiers of the royal guard and have been dedicated as votive offerings to local deities.

Source http://www.getty.edu/

AGATHOCLES OF BACTRIA

Agathocles "the Just" was a Greek king, who reigned  around 190 and 180 BCE. He might have been a son of Demetrius and one of his sub-kings in charge of the Paropamisadae between Bactria and India. In that case, he was a grandson of Euthydemus, whom he qualified as "God-King" on his coins.

Agathocles was contemporary with or a successor of King Pantaleon. He seems to have been attacked and killed by the usurper Eucratides, who took control of the Greco-Bactrian territory. Little is known about him, apart from his extensive coinage.

Pedigree coinage

Agathocles issued a series of "pedigree" dynastic coins, probably with the intent to advertize his lineage and legitimize his rule, linking himself to Alexander the Great, a Seleucid king Antiochus (possibly Antiochus II), the founder of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom Diodotus and his son Diodotus II, Euthydemus,Pantaleon, and Demetrius.

The pedigree coinage has been seen as a token of his ancestry, but a critical view might be considered. All the associations provide a contradictory image. The Euthydemid kings (Demetrius and Euthydemus) are not known to be related to Diodotus - in fact, Euthydemus I overthrew Diodotus II. The Seleucids were enemies of the Euthydemids as well - king Antiochus III had besieged Bactra for almost two years before claiming victory over Euthydemus I. It seems hard to believe that a king who had experienced this as a boy would have found it suitable to mint coins celebrating "Antiochos the Victorious" as the coins read.

Finally, the association with Alexander was a standard move for usurpers in the Hellenistic world, such as the pseudo-Seleucids Alexander Balas and the Syrian general Diodotus Tryphon.

Bilingual coinage

At the same time, Agathocles issued an intriguing range of bilingual coinage, displaying what seems to be Buddhist as well as Hinduist symbolism. The coins, manufactured according to the Indian standard, using either Brahmi, Greek or Kharoshthi (a first in the Greek world), and displaying symbols of the various faiths in India, tend to indicate a considerable willingness to accommodate local languages and beliefs, to an extent unseen in subsequent Indo-Greek kings. They may be indicative of the considerable efforts of the first Indo-Greek kings to secure support from Indian populations and avoid being perceived as invaders, efforts which may have subsided once the Indo-Greek kingdoms were more securely in place.

Buddhist coinage

The Buddhist coinage of Agathocles is in the Indian standard (square or round copper coins) and depicts Buddhist symbols such as the stupa, the "tree in railing", or the lion. These coins sometimes use Brahmi, and sometimes Kharoshthi, whether later Indo-Greek kings only used Kharoshthi.

 Lakshmi appears in several of these coins, a Goddess of abundance and fortune for Hindus and early Buddhists.

These seem to be the first known representations of Vedic deities on coins, and they display early Avatars of Vishnu: Balarama-Sankarshana with attributes consisting of the Gada mace and the plow, and Vasudeva-Krishna with the Vishnu attributes of the Shankha (a pear-shaped case or conch) and the Sudarshana Chakra wheel. According to Bopearachchi, the headdress is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol on top (chattra), as seen in later statues of Bodhisattvas in Mathura. It is therefore thought that sculptures or images, predating the coins but now lost, served as models to the engravers.

The frontal pose of these deities is totally uncharacteristic of the general depiction of Gods on Greek coins, who are generally shown in three-quarter postures. The sideways disposition of the feet is also characteristic of early India sculptures, as seen in the stupas of Bharhut or Sanchi. 

The Hinduist coins 

The Hinduist coins of Agathocles are few but spectacular. Six Indian-standard silver drachmas were discovered at Ai-Khanoum in 1970, which depict Hindu deities. These coins, discovered on the 3rd of October 1970 hidden in a pilgrim’s water-vessel in a room of the administrative quarter of the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai-Khanoum, are key to the understanding of the evolution of Vaisnava imagery in India.

SOURCES : Wikipedia, HellenicaWorld

ORPHIC HYMN TO APOLLO

The English translation of the Orphic Hymn to Apollo is by Thomas Taylor (1792) .Some of the words have been written in a contemporary spelling, for the sake of easier reading. The original Hymn in Greek is below the English translation.

English Translation

Blessed Paean, come, propitious to my prayer,

Illustrious power, whom Memphian tribes revere,

Slayer of Tityus, and the God of health,

Lycorian Phoebus, fruitful source of wealth .

Spermatic, golden-lyred, the field from thee

Receives its constant, rich fertility.

Titanic, Grunian, Smynthian, thee I sing,

Python-destroying, hallowed, Delphian king:

Rural, light-bearer, and the Muse's Head,

Noble and lovely, armed with arrows dread:

Far-darting, Bacchian, two-fold, and divine,

Power far diffused, and course oblique is Thine.

O, Delian king, whose light-producing eye

Views all within, and all beneath the sky:

Whose locks are gold, whose oracles are sure,

Who, omens good reveals, and precepts pure:

Hear me entreating for the human kind,

Hear, and be present with benignant mind;

For You survey this boundless aether all,

And every part of this terrestrial ball

Abundant, blessed; and thy piercing sight,

Extends beneath the gloomy, silent night;

Beyond the darkness, starry-eyed, profound,

The stable roots, deep fixed by Thee are found.

The world's wide bounds, all-flourishing are Thine,

Thyself all the source and end divine:

'Tis Thine all Nature's music to inspire,

With various-sounding, harmonising lyre;

Now the last string thou tun'ft to sweet accord,

Divinely warbling now the highest chord;

The immortal golden lyre, now touched by Thee,

Responsive yields a Dorian melody.

All Nature's tribes to Thee their difference owe,

And changing seasons from thy music flow

Hence, mixed by Thee in equal parts, advance

Summer and Winter in alternate dance;

This claims the highest, that the lowest string,

The Dorian measure tunes the lovely spring .

Hence by mankind, Pan-royal, two-horned named,

Emitting whistling winds through Syrinx famed;

Since to Thy care, the figured seal's consigned,

Which stamps the world with forms of every kind.

Hear me, blessed power, and in these rites rejoice,

And save thy mystics with a suppliant voice.

Ancient Greek Text

Ἐλθέ, μάκαρ Παιὰν τιτυοκτόνε, Φοῖβε Λυκωρεῦ,

Μεμφῖτ’, ἀγλαότιμος, ἰῃϊος, ὀλβιοδῶτα.

χρυσολύρη, σπερμεῖος, ἀρότριε, Πύθιε, Τιτάν,

Γρύνειε, Σμινθεῦ, Πυθοκτόνε, Δελφικέ, μάντι,

ἄγριε, φωσφόρε δαῖμον, ἐράσμιε, κύδιμε κοῦρε·   5

Μουσαγέτη, χαροποιός, ἑκηβόλε, τοξοβέλεμνε,

Βράγχιε καὶ Διδυμεῦ, ἑκάεργος, Λοξία, ἁγνέ·

Δήλι’ ἄναξ πανδερκὲς ἔχων φαεσίμβροτον ὄμμα,

χρυσοκόμη, καθαρὰς φήμας χρησμούς τ’ ἀναφαίνων·

κλῦθί μευ εὐχομένου λαῶν ὕπερ εὔφρονι θυμῷ.   10

τόνδε σὺ γὰρ λεύσσεις τὸν ἀπείριτον αἰθέρα πάντα,

γαῖάν τ’ ὀλβιόμοιρον ὕπερθέν καὶ δι’ ἀμολγοῦ

νυκτὸς ἐν ἡσυχίῃσιν ὑπ’ ἀστεροομμάτου ὄρφνης

ῥίζας νέρθε δέδορκας, ἔχεις δέ τε πείρατα κόσμου

παντός· σοὶ δ’ ἀρχή τε τελευτή τ’ ἐστὶ μέλουσα,   15

παντοθαλής, σὺ δὲ πάντα πόλον κιθάρῃ πολυκρέκτῳ

ἁρμόζεις, ὁτὲ μὲν νεάτης ἐπὶ τέρματα βαίνων,

ἄλλοτε δ’ αὖθ’ ὑπάτην, ποτὲ Δώριον εἰς διάκοσμον

πάντα πόλον κιρνὰς, κρίνεις βιοθρέμμονα φῦλα,

ἁρμονίῃ κεράσας παγκόσμιον ἀνδράσι μοῖραν·   20

μίξας χειμῶνος θέρεός τ’ ἴσον ἀμφοτέροισιν,

εἰς ὑπάτας χειμῶνα, θέρος νεάταις διακρίνας,

Δώριον εἰς ἔαρος πολυηράτου ὥριον ἄνθος.

ἔνθεν ἐπωνυμίην σε βροτοὶ κλῄζουσιν ἄνακτα

Πᾶνα, θεὸν δικέρωτ’, ἀνέμων συρίγμαθ’ ἱέντα·   25

οὕνεκα παντὸς ἔχεις κόσμου σφρηγῖδα τυπῶτιν.

κλῦθι μάκαρ, σώζων μύστας ἱκετηρίδι φωνῇ.

GREEK ART IN PAKISTAN : CAPITAL AND STATUE PEDESTAL FROM PESHAWAR

Photograph taken by Alexander Caddy in 1896.  Indo-Corinthian capital, and the pedestal of a statue depicting two scenes of Buddha with attendants, from Loriyan Tangai in the Peshawar district of Pakistan.This photograph shows the top of a column, known as the capital, and the base of a statue known as a pedestal. Both pieces bear the influence of the Greek tradition, as the classical artistic style is evident. The Corinthian capital derives from Ancient Greek architecture-from the first century CE onwards, this became popular in Peshawar district. The columns found in Peshawar are not, however, identical to their Greek counterparts. They blend Indian and classical features and are therefore termed 'Indo-Greek'. An entire artistic movement was born from the Greek presence in Bactria and India and Sculpture is a notable example of this. Large quantities of statues found in the Peshawar district, were heavily influenced by classical forms. This influence can be observed in the sculpting of the figures on the pedestal, through their draped clothing, curly hair and naturalistically modelled bodies, echoing the Greek artistic style.

Edited from : BRITISH LIBRARY 

IMAGES WITH THE DELPHIC MAXIMS ( PART 4 )

The following images are about various Delphic Maxims ( for more on this topic, click here ). To download them, right-click on each picture.

Υἱοὺς παίδευε ~  Educate your sons

Ἔχων χαρίζου ~ When you have, give away

Δόλον φοβοῦ ~ Fear deceit

Φιλόσοφος γίνου ~ Be a seeker of wisdom

 Ὅσια κρῖνε  ~ Judge what is divine

Γνοὺς πρᾶττε ~ Act with awareness

Φόνου ἀπέχου ~ Shun murder

Εὔχου δυνατά ~ Pray with all the strength you have

Σοφοῖς χρῶ ~ Consult the wise / Seek the company of the wise