ARABIA , GREECE AND BYZANTIUM ~ FREE BOOK PDF

A book about the cultural contacts tthroughout ancient and medieval times, available in PDF. Click on the following link.

https://www.mfa.gr/missionsabroad/images/stories/missions/saudi-arabia/docs/Arabia_Greece_and_Byzantium_en.pdf

GRECO~ARABIAN KINGDOM

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom, a period of dynamic interaction between Greek and Arabian cultures, emerged in the ancient Arabian Peninsula during a pivotal time in the region’s history. Spanning from 298 BCE to 27 BCE, this kingdom represented a unique fusion of Hellenistic influence, introduced after the conquest of Alexander the Great, and the local Arabian traditions. This paper explores the political, cultural, and military significance of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom, as well as its relationship with neighboring empires and its eventual decline.

The Origins of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom’s formation can be traced back to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE. His vast empire fragmented, and control over the Arabian Peninsula shifted between the Seleucid Empire, which ruled much of the Near East, and local Arabian dynasties. One such local dynasty was that of the Nabataeans, a powerful people in the northern Arabian Peninsula. In 298 BCE, as Seleucid control waned and the Nabataean Kingdom gained strength, the Greco-Arabian Kingdom came into being.

Initially, the Nabataeans maintained their political independence under the leadership of King Aretas I. His kingdom was a key player in the region, with Petra, the capital, becoming a thriving trade hub connecting the Mediterranean world with Arabia, India, and Africa. The Seleucid Empire’s weakening influence in the region allowed for the growth of such kingdoms, which became increasingly autonomous.

Political and Cultural Developments

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom represented a remarkable blend of Greek and Arabian cultures. The Greek influence, particularly from the Seleucid Empire, brought with it Hellenistic art, architecture, and governance. Greek was used as the language of diplomacy and administration, while Greek-influenced urban planning and city-building projects flourished in regions such as Petra and other parts of modern-day Jordan.

However, this kingdom also preserved many aspects of traditional Arabian culture, including its tribal social structure, religious practices, and nomadic traditions. The kingdom's leaders, who were of Arabian descent, skillfully integrated these two worlds, promoting a hybrid culture that was neither fully Greek nor fully Arabian.

One of the most remarkable aspects of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom was its role in trade. Positioned along the lucrative incense routes, it was strategically important for controlling trade between the Mediterranean and the Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom played a pivotal role in the export of frankincense, myrrh, and other valuable commodities, which were highly sought after by the ancient world.

The Military and Strategic Importance

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom’s military was another key factor in its success. Although not as formidable as the armies of the Ptolemies or Seleucids, the Nabataeans had a unique military advantage. Their knowledge of the desert and ability to control key trade routes made them formidable adversaries. Their reliance on cavalry and archers, combined with guerrilla tactics, allowed them to hold their ground against larger, more powerful foes.

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom's control over trade routes also made it a significant player in the geopolitics of the time. Both the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire had an interest in controlling the Arabian trade routes. However, the Nabataeans skillfully navigated their relationships with both powers, maintaining their independence and flourishing as a regional power.

Decline and Legacy

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom began to decline in the 1st century BCE, as Roman influence expanded in the region. In 64 BCE, the Roman general Pompey conquered the Nabataean Kingdom, marking the end of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom as an independent entity. Although the Kingdom was absorbed into the Roman Empire, the legacy of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom persisted. The cultural and architectural contributions of the kingdom continued to influence the region, with Petra remaining an iconic symbol of its unique heritage.

The Nabataean Kingdom’s integration into the Roman Empire also allowed for the continued prosperity of its trade routes, which remained vital for Roman commerce.

Conclusion

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom, which lasted from 298 BCE to 27 BCE, was a remarkable fusion of Greek and Arabian cultures. It was a kingdom that thrived due to its strategic location, rich trade routes, and ability to blend Hellenistic and Arabian traditions. While its political independence was eventually absorbed by the expanding Roman Empire, its cultural legacy endures, particularly in its architectural achievements such as Petra. The Greco-Arabian Kingdom is a testament to the power of cultural syncretism and the ability of smaller kingdoms to influence the larger geopolitical stage.

References

Bowersock, G. W. (1983). Roman Arabia. Harvard University Press.

Krencker, R. (1922). Petra: A Study in Greco-Roman Art and Architecture. Journal of the British School at Rome, 18(2), 125-147.

Whitcomb, D. (2004). The Nabataean World: Architecture and Culture in the Greco-Roman Period. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 63(4), 245-267.

Schick, T. (2003). Petra: The Archaeology of the Nabataean Kingdom. Oxford University Press.

HEBREW IS GREEK ~ PDF

 Paleo Hebrew is Greek.

What you call Hebrew today is modern Hebrew using the Babylonia Aramaic Alphabet.

For about 30 years, the genius Jewish researcher Joseph Ezekiel Yahuda compared 3 languages: Jewish, Arabic and Ancient Greek Homeric. Finally, in the year 1982, in London UK, he published a 680-page book titled ’’ Hebrew is Greek’’.

For those who wish to read it, it's available here in pdf form for free.

Click on this  https://fr.scribd.com/.../Joseph-Yahuda-Hebrew-is-Greek-pdf

or  this https://ia801600.us.archive.org/13/items/Hebrew.is.Greek/Hebrew_is_Greek_lite_text.pdf

or  this https://archive.org/details/Hebrew.is.Greek/page/n17/mode/2up

SEMTHAN ~ A HELLENISTIC OUTPOST IN KASHMIR HIMALAYA ~ PDF

A research paper on the archaeologiacal site of Semthan. 

For those who wish to read it, it's available here in pdf form for free.

 Click on this link https://www.academia.edu/73922838/Semthan_A_Hellenistic_Outpost_in_Kashmir_Himalaya

COINS FROM ALL OF THE CORE GRECO- BACTRIAN RULERS

In the picture we see coins from all of the core Greco-Baktrian rulers.

The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was a Greek state of the Hellenistic period located in Central Asia. Although a Greek population was already present in Bactria by the 5th century BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the region by 327 BCE.

THEODOTUS INSCRIPTION ~ ISRAEL

 THEODOTUS  INSCRIPTION ~ ISRAEL 

The Theodotos inscription is the earliest known inscription from a synagogue. It was found  by Raymond Weill in Wadi Hilweh (known as the City of David).

Greek script

ΘΕΟΔΟΤΟΣ ΟΥΕΤΤΗΝΟΥ ΙΕΡΕΥΣ ΚΑΙ

ΑΡΧΙΣΥΝΑΓΩΓΟΣ ΥΙΟΣ ΑΡΧΙΣΥΝ(ΑΓΩ)

Γ(Ο)Υ ΥΙΩΝΟΣ ΑΡΧΙΣΥΝ(Α)ΓΩΓΟΥ ΩΚΟ

ΔΟΜΗΣΕ ΤΗΝ ΣΥΝΑΓΩΓ(Η)Ν ΕΙΣ ΑΝ(ΑΓ)ΝΩ

Σ(ΙΝ) ΝΟΜΟΥ ΚΑΙ ΕΙΣ (Δ)ΙΔAΧ(Η)Ν ΕΝΤΟΛΩΝ ΚΑ(Ι)

ΤΟΝ ΞΕΝΩΝΑ ΚΑ(Ι TΑ) ΔΩΜΑΤΑ ΚΑΙ ΤΑ ΧΡΗ

Σ(Τ)ΗΡΙΑ ΤΩΝ ΥΔΑΤΩΝ ΕΙΣ ΚΑΤΑΛΥΜΑ ΤΟΙ

Σ(Χ)ΡΗΖΟΥΣΙΝ ΑΠΟ ΤΗΣ ΞΕ(Ν)ΗΣ ΗΝ ΕΘΕΜΕ

Λ(ΙΩ)ΣΑΝ ΟΙ ΠΑΤΕΡΕΣ (Α)ΥΤΟΥ ΚΑΙ ΟΙ ΠΡΕ

Σ(Β)ΥΤΕΡΟΙ ΚΑΙ ΣΙΜΩΝ(Ι)ΔΗΣ

Translation

Theodotos son of Vettenus, priest and head of the synagogue (archisynágōgos), son of a head of the synagogue, and grandson of a head of the synagogue, built the synagogue for the reading of the law and for the teaching of the commandments, as well as the guest room, the chambers, and the water fittings as an inn for those in need from abroad, the synagogue which his fathers founded with the elders and Simonides.

Edited from Wikipedia 

THE IMPACT OF ANCIENT GREEK MEDICINE IN INDIA: THE BIRTH OF UNANI MEDICINE

 

The engagement with the history of arts and sciences in ancient Greece is full of enchantment, because through them one can better understand the present and foresee the future. This is all the more true for the science of Medicine which, for a long period of time, was characterized as art, later on as both an art and a science and today is considered as a science and applied technology.

Good health and well-being of humans has always depended on a large degree on the bright energy sent to us by the sun. Thus the first God of medicine, meaning the God who preserves life and defeats death, is Apollo, the God of light and rhythm. Even today, folk wisdom repeats the phrase “Where the sun enters a doctor doesn't”. Apollo is the child of Zeus and the Titanide Leto and the twin brother of Artemis, Goddess of the moon. God Apollo and the mortal Coronis gave life to a child called Asclepius who, as a half-God was brought to the earthly world and trained as a healer. His teacher was Centaur Chiron (half-human and half-horse) who had the knowledge to exploit the beneficial powers of the natural world. Asclepius soon acquired the reputation of the great healer and traveled around Greece healing people. The power of His work gave Him the prestige of a God in a world of mortals. His sons and daughters supported His healing power as his helpers but as independent beings as well. His sons took part in the Trojan War as military doctors, while His daughters were protectors and leaders of the doctors' healing acts and performed health rehabilitation techniques with spiritual and bodily interventions .

The treatment provision in ancient Greece  was based on the structure of Asclepeion. The Asclepeion was the temple of healing intervention by the descendants of Asclepius, under the supervision of Him and his family. This place constitutes not only the core of a building infrastructure but the crown of a multi-shaped and multi-productive intervention both in mental, psychological, physical and social functions of the human entity. In its basic form it included theater (drama-therapy), baths (spa-therapy), stadium (exercising), gardens (relaxation), kitchen (restaurants), bed-chambers (hotels), temples (impressive structures) and the Avaton (a quiet chamber half buried into the earth with dim lighting intended for deep sleep – ICU). Fast, diet, purification, drinking water from a healing spring, relaxation in a clean environment, theater performance, listening to music, dancing, exercising, sleep induction, psychological shocks, pharmaceutical and surgical interventions combined with the most powerful weapon anyone can possess, which is faith to a higher power, deconstructs illness and provides the psychosomatic balance which leads to the cure. The final healing intervention is the sleep during which, while the patient is asleep in the Avaton, he/she comes in contact with Asclepius, his helpers and his sacred animals so that the cure can arise. The structure of the Asclepeion was directed by the priesthood. The priesthood, in the form of a health center, offered healing through God Asclepius.

The Asclepeion centers acquired glory and fame and were invited to create regional branches. Thus a system of regional health centers was created being under the supervision of the central one. Their structure and their expansion were supported by donations from the rich patients and kings. Many of the Asclepeion centers, such as the one in the island of Kos, were converted to a neutral war zone during difficult circumstances in history so that political and military deliberations could take place between opposite powers for the benefit of peace.

Sixteen generations after Asclepius came his descendant, the eminent personality of Hippocrates (460-377 BCE) who became known worldwide. He worked at the Asclepeion centers in the island of Kos and traveled offering his services not only to prominent personalities of that time, but also to entire populations whenever he was called to battle deadly epidemics. He was concerned with the anatomic and functional structure of the human organism and evolved into a brilliant anatomist and physiologist. His logical methodology is the basis upon which medical thinking is developed until today. His moral views on medical practice are stated in the Oath of Hippocrates. The Oath, which has been translated into all the languages ​​​​of the world, is the one that the graduates of Medical Schools give after the successful completion of their training. 

The healing interventions of that time were surgical and pharmaceutical. The means used for these interventions were the surgical tools, forerunners of the contemporary ones, herbs, and metals, which have evolved to today's medicines, and hypnosis. Since the age of Hippocrates the theory of “humors”, which derives from the philosophical approaches of Empedocles (495-435 BCE) and Aristotle (384-322 BCE), is beginning to form. Four are the humors of the human body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. They are related to the four elements of fire, water, air and earth and the four characters of bloody, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. In succession, any other sequence of four is structured around them and is related to rhythm, orientation, psyche, temperature, diet, etc. 

The theory of humors was developed and described in accuracy by the leading medical doctor Galenus (129-199 CE), and is even until today the basis of Ionian (Greek) medicine.

It is known to everyone that the prevalence of the church brought the dismantling of ancient Greek religion and worship, including the Asclepeion centers. Asclepius' face was the only one that remained almost intact.

Christianity banned and  abandoned a lot of the medical practices of ancient Greece. However, the theory of humors, deeply rooted in Greek Philosophy, continued to be used in disease treatment. In Western Europe of Christianity, ancient Greek philosophy, science, and art were facing their dark days. In the East, members of a Christian sect originating in Asia Minor and Syria by the name Nestorians, established new medical schools, which were parts of a wider educational system, such as in Edessa of Mesopotamia in the 5th century, where the works of Hippocrates , Galenus and other distinguished Greek philosophers were translated into Syrian. Along with that, came the foundation of the great university in Godasaipur in southwest Persia where Greek, Persian and Indian medicine are met with each other and with the philosophies of these three countries.

As the Arabs dominated Persia, Middle East, North Africa and Spain, they developed a desire to learn about Greek philosophy and medical science. In the Caliphate of Baghdad, between the 9th and 13th century, in the “House of Wisdom” – a center for research, education, and translation – an enormous amount of money was spent in a long-lasting mental engagement for the understanding and translation of Greek texts into the Arabic language. The Arabs, through these translations, rescued the Greek texts while the originals were being destroyed in Greece, Alexandria, and Rome. Two prominent Arabs, Rhazes (865-923 CE) and Avicenna (980-1037 CE), are the worthy doctors who carried on the Hippocratic and Galenus' medicine and enriched knowledge with new elements from chemistry (alchemy), botanology (herbal therapy), which had already been documented by the famous doctor Dioscorides (40-90 CE), and the technology of surgical tools with the application of new surgical techniques.

Later on, at the multinational city of Cordoba in Spain, Arab texts were beginning to get translated into Latin. In Europe, during the Middle Ages, these translations brought Greek philosophy and science, including medicine, once again in the spotlight. The Arabs, through their expansion towards south Asia, reached India. There, during the 12th century, the Arab-Greek medicine found suitable grounds to bloom because of the Hippocratic medicine infrastructure already brought to India by Alexander the Great. The Arab-Greek medicine was enriched by the already richly practiced traditional healing and thus the first center was established in Lahore in 1160 CE.

Consequently, Unani Medicine or Unani-Tibb was created. The names were given in honor of the Ionian medicine, which is less known than Ayurveda, due to the Islamic element being in minority in India. Unani-Tibb is the system which observes the influence that the surroundings and ecological conditions such as air, food, drinks, bodily and mental movement and rest, sleep, wakefulness, excretion, and retention have on the state of health. Unani believes that it is this dominance which gives a person his/her individual habit and complexion. Unani practitioners do not only cure bodily diseases but also act as an ethical instructor.

The treatment in Unani medicine involves courses of regimental therapy which include venesection, cupping, sweating, diuresis, bath therapy, massage, cauterization, purging, emesis, counter-irritation, exercise, and leeching.

 Diet therapy deals with certain foods by administration of specific diets or by regulating the quantity and quality of food.

Pharmacotherapy involves the use of naturally occurring mostly herbal drugs (90%), of animal (4-5%) and mineral origin (5-6%) and finally Surgery. Today it is taught in universities in India and is practiced with positive recognition by the World Health Organization.

Ancient Greek medicine, the foundation of which was set by Asclepius, Hippocrates and Galenus, is active until today. Its widespread use by human societies is evidenced by the translations of Greek medical books principally into Arab, from Arab into Latin during the Middle Ages in Europe, as well as by the theoretical and practical application in South Asia of today.

 

EDITED FROM elinepa.org

BACTRIAN INSCRIPTION IN GREEK SCRIPT TAJIKISTAN

Ancient Greek alphabet inscriptions on a rock were recently discovered on a mountain in Tajikistan, a country in Central Asia,.

The engravings in Greek writing in the Bactrian region of that area reads, “ΕΙΔΙΗΛΟ Υ…ϸΑΟΝΑΝϸΑΕ ΟΟΗ-ΜΟ ΤΑΚ-ΤΟΕ,” which translates to “This is the…of the king of kings, Vima Tactu,” according to Nicholas Sims-Williams, a leading specialist in the study of the Bactrian language.

Archaeologists do not typically have the opportunity to discover new monuments in Tajikistan due to its natural landscapes.

The monuments in hard-to-reach mountainous areas are particularly difficult to identify. Local residents get the job done, however, and report their findings to archaeologists.

For example, in 1932, a local shepherd named Jura Ali discovered a basket filled with documents on Mount Mug. The finding turned out to be unique, as it was the first text in the Sogdian language found in the territory of historical Sogd. That study eventually led to the discovery of the settlement of ancient Penjikent.

Similarly, a resident of the village of Shol in the Hisor Sanginov district came across inscriptions in an unfamiliar letter in the mountains.

Bobomullo Bobomulloev, a researcher at the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography of the National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, took over the examination of the discovery.

After closer analysis, the rock inscriptions indeed turned out to be in ancient writing. They were located on the northernmost part of the gorge near the right tributary of the Almosi River in a very picturesque place known among the local population as Khoja Mafraj.

The local shepherd Sanginov Khaitali, who made the find, said that the first time he had visited the area, he had found even more.

Due to avalanches, fragments with inscriptions fell to the foot of the cliff. The part that survived is carved on a flat rock surface in three lines, where there are twenty-three letters 

EDITED FROM m.akipress.com

YAVANAS ~ THE BACTRIAN GREEKS AND THE INDOGREEKS

 

The Yavanas (Bactrian Greeks):

In the ancient Indian Hindu vocabulary the term Yavana stood for the Greeks. India experienced a second Greek invasion after the first one by the Macedonian Greek Alexander the Great when the Maurya Empire had fallen into pieces.

Alexander’s invasion of India, apart from its immediate consequences, left a long standing effect both in culture and the history of India. One of the most notable  indirect consequences was the infiltrations and incursions of the Bactrian Greeks in the north-western India.

When the Mauryas had fallen on evil days and the Sungas were coming to power, the north-western and northern parts of India were conquered one after another by Greek rulers who were virtually the successors to the empire of Alexander in the easternmost part of his empire.

Bactria, modern Balkh, Old Persian Bakhdhi, Bakhal or Bakhli comprised the vast tract of land which was bounded on the south and the east by the Hindukush on the north by the river Oxus and on the west by modern regions of Merv and Herat. Thus it comprised greater part of modern Afghanistan.

Antiochus I:

On Alexander’s death, Seleucus secured for himself a large slice of Alexander’s Asiatic dominions with Syria as his Capital. Alexander had left a considerable number of Greek and Macedonian populations behind in Bactria. Antiochus I, son of Seleucus became a joint-ruler with his father and was placed in charge of Bactria (293 B.C.E.). Two years later on the death of his father (291 B.C.E.) he became sole king. Bactria was now under Governor Diodotus, and the adjoining province of Parthia was under Governor Arsaces.

Antiochus II:

Antiochus I Theos was succeeded by his son Antiochus II Soter. According to Justin, both Diodotus I and Arsaces revolted against Seleu-kidan rule and became independent.

Diodotus I: Diodotus II:

Diodotus died soon after and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II who reversed his father’s anti-Parthian policy and entered into an alliance with Arsaces. Antiochus’ successor Seleucus tried to reconquer Parthia but the alliance between Bactria and Parthia stood Arsaces in good stead and the independence of both Parthia and Bactria was saved.

When Diodotus died is not exactly known to us. But when Antiochus, king of Syria, proceeded with a large force to recover the Provinces of Bactria and Parthia, Euthydemus I was on the throne of Bactria. It is supposed that Diodotus II was dethroned and killed by Euthydemus who according to some writers, was related to Diodotus.

Euthydemus:

Euthydemus was involved in a long-drawn war with Antiochus III and finding his very existence in stake he proposed an honourable peace with Antiochus. It was impressed on Antiochus that Euthydemus was not a rebel; on the contrary, he put to death Diodotus and his children who belonged to the rebel family.

Further, if Syria and Bactria would be engaged in continued warfare the Scynthians would destroy both the countries. These arguments had good effects on Antiochus III who sent his son Demetrius to finalise the terms of the treaty. Antiochus was very much impressed; he recognised the independence of Bactria and cemented the friendship with Euthydemus who gave his daughter in marriage to Demetrius.

Antiochus III:

After making peace with Bactria, Antiochus III proceeded in an invasion of India and having crossed the Hindukush and entered into the Kabul Valley and encountered one ‘Sophagosenus, king of the Indians’. From the Indian sources we do not know who this Sophagosenus, i.e., Subhagasena was. According to the Tibetan historian, Taranath, he was connected with Virasena, king of Gandhara, who was the great-grandson of Asoka.

Antiochus was long absent from his capital in his not very decisive conflict with Parthia and Bactria and the threat of the expanding Roman Empire necessitated his return to Syria. He accepted a token submission of Subhagasena and quickly returned to his Capital leaving the formidable Bactrian power with a fresh lease of independence.

Subhagasena gave Antiochus ample supplies for his Forces and made over to him a number of war elephants but a large sum he promised to pay remained unrealised as Antiochus left in a hurry for his home which was in danger. His dream of reconquest of the lost provinces of the Seleukidan Empire thus remained unrealised.

We have no literary source to know whether Euthydemus carried his army towards the south beyond Hindukush, but numismatic evidence seems to prove that parts of Arachosia and the provinces to its north, Paropamisus and Aria, were conquered by him. It has been suggested by Gardner that the Bactrian Greek conquests in these regions were made under the auspices of Demetrius, the young and valiant son of Euthydemus, who probably ruled jointly with his father towards the end of his rule. However, nothing can be said with certainty.

Under Euthydemus Bactria attained great prosperity as has been proved by numerous coins with his name and devices, made of gold, silver, copper, etc. Many of the coins of Euthydemus are masterpieces of numistic art and technique. Some of these with his figure show him to be a well-built man of strong individuality and firmness of character.

Demetrius:

Demetrius, son of Euthydemus, about whom Polybius speaks in glowing terms, who was sent by his father to finalise the terms of peace with Antiochus III and  made a deep impression on the latter, played a prominent part in the contemporary history of India and Bactria. It was Demetrius who after Alexander the Great, succeeded in carrying Greek arms into the interior of India.

His invasion was the first in the series of the Greek invasions which resulted in their permanent settlement in a substantial portion of north and north-west of India. India’s really intimate and prolonged Greek contact began with Demetrius.

Greco-Roman chroniclers like Strabo, Polybius, Justin, etc., have devoted pages to the career of Demetrius. In the Indian tradition although there is no clear mention of him yet a probable reference is found in the grammar of Patanjali and the Mahabharata in both of which mentions one Dattamitra, king of the Yavanas.

Much of the information obtained from the literary sources has been corroborated by the numerous coins of his time some of which bore legends both in Greek and Indian Prakrit, written in Greek and Kharosti characters prove beyond doubt that these were meant for circulation in his Indian possession.

Demetrius appears to have succeeded as the sole ruler of Bactria in his full manhood when Bactria was already a prosperous country. He was then 35 years of age with sufficient practical knowledge and experience of diplomacy, administration, etc., as his father’s deputy.

Political condition of the extreme north of India at the time was such that it invited the attention of the powerful neighbour Bactria. Demetrius crossed the Hindukush with a large army. His passage through the lands between the Hindukush and the Indus was facilitated due to their dependence and friendship with Bactrian Kingdom.

Demetrius conquered portions of the Punjab and Sind and probably founded cities there for the purpose of effective administration of the newly conquered territories. One of such cities has been referred to by Arrian and Ptolemy. While Arrian calls it Saggala, Ptolemy refers to it as Sagala which has been identified with Sakala, i.e., modern Sialkot in the Punjab.

During his Indian advance, Demetrius, like Alexander, settled Greek garrisons to protect his rear and flanks. These were called Demetrius as Alexander’s were called Alexandrias. These garrisons of Demetrius became the nuclei of several later Bactrian Greek settlements when their rule was confined to their Indian conquests only.

The exact extent of Demetrius’s advance into India is very much controversial and the information supplied by the Greek and the Indian texts have been interpreted in different ways. Strabo, basing his statement on Apollodorus remarks that the expansion of the Bactrian Kingdom in India was the work of both Demetrius and Menander, and that they conquered more nations than Alexander succeeded in conquering.

According to Strabo the Bactrian Chiefs, Menander and Demetrius conquered Patalene, i.e., the Indus delta, Saurastra (Saraostos), Cutch or Sagardvipa (Sigerdis). They extended their empire as far as Seres, that is, the land of the Chinese and Tibet in Central Asia, and Phryni, a Central Asian tribe. In one passage Strabo states that “those who came after Alexander advanced beyond the Hypanis to the Ganges and Palimbothra (Pataliputra)”.

The Indian texts like Yuga Purana and Patanjali’s Mahabhasya mention places such as Saketa (Oudh), Madhyamika (Modern Nagari in Rajasthan), Panchala (Rohilkhand), Mathura as conquered by the Greeks. But neither the Greek nor Indian source gives us the places conquered by Menander and Demetrius separately.

As Dr. J. N. Banerjee points out the Bactrian conquests were attributed to Menander by some scholars but subsequent researches have proved that it was Demetrius who had carried the Greek arms into the interior of India. According to W. W. Taru, both Apollodotus and Menander advanced into India under Demetrius. Menander came in by the great road across the Punjab and the Delhi passage to the Ganges and the Mauryan Capital Pataliputra; and Apollodotus down the Indus to its mouth and whatever might be beyond.

These two conquering forces were to converge on the centre of India and complete the circuit round northern India. According to him (Taru) Demetrius was the chief guiding factor in the enterprise and was helped by the other two who first acted as the sub-kings under Demetrius and later on succeeded him in different parts of India as independent kings.

Taru’s arguments, plausible though, are not corroborated by any literary evidence what is apparent from available evidence remarks N. K. Sastri textual as well as archaeological, in the fact, that of these Demetrius held alone Bactria as well as India, whereas the other two held sway in India only; their respective coin types leave no doubt about this.

However, Demetrius’ hold over Bactria was soon jeopardised and it became difficult for him to have effective control over so vast an empire from Bactria. The very extension of his dominion in India proved suicidal to him. In his absence, in Bactria Eucratides, whose antecedents are very little known and who is described by Justin as a leader of great vigour and ability, organised the Bactrian rebellion against Demetrius, put himself at the head of the rebels and made himself thus king.

To accomplish all this, there is no doubt, that Eucratides had a prolonged struggle against Demetrius and the memory of which is still preserved in the fragments of classical texts as well as in coins and commemorative medallions. It is also supposed by some writers that after having lost Bactria to Eucratides, Demetrius lived in India for the rest of his life. But nothing is known about the last days of Demetrius.

Demetrius’ association with India is borne out by archaeological as well as literary evidences. His coins with Greek legends on the obverse and Kharosti on the reverse may be referred to in this regard. Scholars have identified Dattamitra referred to in the Mahabharata with Demetrius. In Malakagnimitra Kalidasa also refers to invasion of India by the Greek at the time of Pushyamitra Sunga and the defeat of the Greeks at the hands of Vasumitra, son of Agnimitra and a general of Pushyamitra, on right bank of the river Sindhu.

Eucratides:

From the scanty references to the career of Eucratides in Strabo’s and Justin’s writings we know of his having overthrown Demetrius. Strabo mentions him to be the lord of a thousand cities but does not say whether the cities were in India or Bactria. Justin says he reduced India to subjection. This subjection of India probably means the land on the Sindhu.

From Justin’s remark it will not be unreasonable to suppose that some of the thousand cities referred to by Strabo were in India. But as Dr. D. C. Sarker points out Eucratides’ success in India was only partial and only temporary in regard to some of the areas. There is evidence to show that he had a series of fight with the princes of the house of Euthydemus who held possession of some parts of India and Afghanistan.

From the re-striking of some copper coins of Apollodotus by Eucratides raised the presumption that the former was defeated by the latter. From these coins scholars think that Apollodotus Soter was actually ousted from the Kapisa country. It is also possible that Eucratides had to fight with a number of the champions of the house of Demetrius after the latter’s death.

Numismatic evidence suggests that Heliocles was the son and successor of Eucratides and there are commemorative coins issued by Eucratides to celebrate his son Heliocles’ marriage with Laodice who was the daughter of Demetrius by his wife who was daughter of Antiocus III.

According to Justin, Eucratides had to fight not only with Demetrius, the champion of his house but also with the people known as Sogdians, i.e., the people of Sogdiana or the Bokhara region. Prolongs warfare told upon the health of Eucratides and totally exhausted he could ill afford to resist the attack of the Parthian king, Mithridates I who annexed two of Bactrian districts to his territory.

Justin mentions that when Eucratides was on journey homeward he was murdered by his son Heliocles. There is, however, a difference of opinion among scholars about the name of Eucratides’ murderer. According to Cunningham Apollodotus was the murderer, but researches have proved that he could not have been the murderer and Heliocles is generally accepted as the regicide.

Heliocles:

Heliocles is almost unanimously regarded as the successor of Eucratides. Our knowledge about his reign is probably the haziest. We have, however, two distinct groups of coins of his time, one of Attic (Greek) standard with only Greek legend and the other of bilingual type with both Greek and Indian languages.

A careful scrutiny of his coins has convinced scholars that Heliocles had given up the Attic standard coins and adopted the one in imitation of his father’s coin in Greek and Indian languages, after he had lost control on Bactria and his possessions were confined to Indian territories.

The anti-Bactrian policy initiated by the Parthian King Mithridates I who had occupied two districts of Bactria, was pursued with all vigour and according to a Roman historian Orosius Mithridates conquered all peoples between the Hydaspes and the Indus. This Hydaspes was not the Jhelum but the Medus Hydaspes, a Persian Stream. Thus the Parthian power seems to have extended from East Iran to the Indus. Strabo also mentions that the nomadic tribes Asii-Asiani, Saraucae-Sacae drove the Greeks out of Bactria. These tribes have been identified with the Yueh-chi and the Sakas.

Even if the above identifications are held doubtful, the fact remains that the Bactrian Kingdom was lost to the Greeks due to the invasions of the Parthians and the northern nomads. Heliocles, the last of the Greek Kings at Bactria, had to fall back into Kabu’ Valley and India. The Greek rule in these regions of Afghanistan and north-western India was characterised by internecine wars among various princes belonging to the houses of Demetrius and Eucratides.

More than 30 names of the Indo-Bactrian Greek rulers have been found from coins. For the majority of these rulers, their coins provide us with evidence- however, in the case of  Apollodotus, Menander and Antialcidas ,we have quite substantial information. 

Indo-Greek Rulers:

Apollodotus:

We have already come across the names of Apollodotus and Menander while discussing the Indian conquests of Demetrius. They ruled in regions south of the Hindukush and were perhaps related to the house of Euthydemus. The classical writers have mentioned Apollodotus twice in association with Menander. Some scholars suggest that he was perhaps the younger brother of Demetrius and might have been appointed along with Menander in conquering India.

The extent of the territories ruled by Apollodotus is not known for certain but from the Periplus we know that his territory extended from Kapisa and Gandhara and from western and southern Punjab to Sind and perhaps to the port of Barygaza (Broach). The Periplus also mentions that the coins, of both Apollodotus and Menander, were simultaneously in circulation at Broach. The very large number of the coins of Apollodotus discovered in wide expanse of territories show that he ruled over a vast kingdom.

Menander:

Strabo calls Menander, the greatest of the Indo-Greek Kings. According to Milindapanha, a Pali work in the form of a dialogue with Milinda (i.e., Menander), he was a mighty Yavana King of Sakala, modern Sialkot in the Punjab. The dialogue was between Menander and an erudite Buddhist scholar and monk named Nagasena in which Buddhist Metaphysics and Philosophy are discussed.

Milinda was an intelligent and acute questioner and being satisfied by the answers of Nagasena was so impressed that he became a convert to Buddhism. There is no doubt about the identification of Milinda with Menander. The classical writers like Strabo, Plutarch, Justin and Trogus mention Menander as a great personality.

The contemporary Buddhists held a very high opinion about him. Nagasena writes:

'As a disputant he was hard to equal, harder still to overcome, the acknowledged superior of all the founders of the various schools of thought. As in wisdom so in strength of body, swiftness and valour there was found none equal to Milinda in India. He was rich too, mighty in wealth and prosperity, and the number of his armed hosts knew no end.'

The unqualified praise lavished upon a foreign ruler shows the great esteem the alien monarch inspired in minds of the Indians.

W. W. Taru’s contention that Menander, belonging to a ruling house was not likely to adopt the creed of his subject people is not acceptable to scholars. There have been cases besides that of Menander, where the Greeks adopted Indian creeds. It was Menander alone who had left so deep an impress on the Indian mind that he was remembered with respect long after his time even during the 11th century B.C.E. when Kshemendra in his Avadanakalpalata makes a respectful mention of his name.

In the Milindapanha we have some interesting details about Menander. He is said to have been born in the village of Kalasi in the dvipa (island) of Alasanda, i.e., Alexandria, which was 200 yojanas away. The Pali work informs us that the King used to be attended by a large number of his Yonaka (Greek) courtiers when be met Nagasena.

Milindapanha also gives us a description of the capital of Menander. The country of the Yonaka, i.e., Greek King Menander, was a great centre of trade, a city that was called Sagala, i.e., Sakala (Sialkot) situated in a delightful country well watered and hilly, abounding in parks, gardens, groves, lakes and tanks, a paradise of rivers, mountains and woods.

Wise architects prepared the layout of the capital and its people did not know of any oppression since all enemies and adversaries had been put down. The defence of the City was strong, with many strong towers, ramparts and beautiful gates. The royal citadel is in the midst of the city which was walled and moated.

The streets were well-laid and there were crossroads, squares and market places. Costly merchandise of many varieties filled the shops. The city had hundreds and thousands of magnificent and very tall mansions. Streets were thronged by people, elephants, horses and carriages. Society had four classes of people—the Brahmanas, nobles, artificers and servants.

People showed respect to the master of all creeds. The shops dealt in Benares muslin, Kotumbara stuffs and clothes of other varieties. Sweet smell would issue from the markets where fragrant flowers and perfumes were on sale. Jewels were there in plenty, guilds of traders displayed their goods in the market.

We, however, cannot ascertain the exact nature of the relation of Menander with the house of Euthydemus. N. K. Sastri is of the opinion that in spite of what has been said about his royalty in the Milindapanha, Menander was a commoner perhaps related to the family of Euthydemus by marriage.

It is suggested that Menander’s dominions comprised Kabul Valley of Afghanistan, north-west India, Punjab, Sind, Kathiawar and Rajputana and perhaps parts of modern Uttarpradesh. It is also supposed that Menander had crossed the Hyphanis coast and reached the Isamus.

The Hyphanis has been identified with the Beas and the Isamus with Prakrit Ichchumai, a river of Panchala that runs through Kumayun Rohilkhand and the Kanauj region. The hold of Menander over Peshawar is borne out by Kharosti inscriptions discovered in the Bajaur tribal territory.

Under Menander Sakala became a shelter for the Buddhists who were persecuted under the rule of Pushyamitra Sunga.

According to Rapson the fame of Menander as a great and just ruler was not confined to India. Plutarch, writing two centuries after the death of Menander, described how, after his death in camp, the cities of his dominions contended for the honour of preserving his ashes. Rapson rightly points out that, It is thus as a Philosopher and not as a mighty conqueror that Menander, like Janmejaya, King of the Kurus and Janaka, King of Videha, in the Upanishads, has won for himself an abiding fame.

Strato-I: Strato-II:

At the time of his death in a camp, he was most probably engaged in warfare with some adversary, whose name is not known to us. He was succeeded by Strato-I who was a minor and the mother of the minor King worked as regent. Menander’s death adversely affected the fortunes of his dynasty and some parts of his dominions were lost almost immediately. Strato ruled for a long time and was succeeded by his grandson Strato-II and a large number of his silver coins have been discovered.

Antialcidas:

Antialcidas was another name that found prominence in the Indian epigraphic record at Besnagar. The inscription records the erection of Guruda-dhvaja, i.e., a column erected in honour of Lord Vasudeva, with a figure of Garuda as the capital by a Greek from Taxila named Heliodorus who had been sent by King Antialcidas as an ambassador to the court of the King Kaustiputra Bhagabhadra of the Sunga dynasty at Vidisa or Besnagar. This inscription testifies to the friendly relations that subsisted between the Yavana, i.e., Greek King of Taxila and the Sunga King of Vidisa, as well as to the adoption of Vaishnavism by the Greeks.

It is supposed that Antialcidas belonged to the Eucratides family and he succeeded Eucratides in the Kapisa region, as he issued coins with the image of the city divinity of Kapisa with which Eucratides himself restruck the coins of Apollodotus. In some of the coins found at Taxila, Antialcidas was associated with a senior ruler named Lysias who was probably his father. The rule of Lysias seems to have intervened between the reigns of Heliocles and Antialcidas.

It is sometimes suggested that Antialcidas, Lysias, Heliocles ruled simultaneously in different provinces like Taxila, Kapisa and Pushkaravati yet Dr. D. C. Sarkar points out that Antialcidas was the latest of all as he was a contemporary of King Bhagabhadra of Vidisa to whose Court he had sent an ambassador. According to Dr. D. C. Sarkar he sought friendship of Bhagabhadra against Menander.

Hermaeus:

Hermaeus was the last of the Kings of the Greek Dynasty of Eucratides. His kingdom was in the upper Kabul Valley which was surrounded by his enemy countries. The Sakas lay on the east, the Pahlavas, i.e., the Parthians on the west and the Yueh-chis on the north. Naturally, Hermaeus was hard put to the job of maintaining the security of his small kingdom.

His neighbouring Greek dominions of Puskaravati and Taxila had already been occupied by the Sakas and it was his turn to be dispossessed. To cope with the situation, he married Calliope who was related to Hippostratus of his rival house and sought to put up a united defence. But all this was of no avail and the barbarian blow to his Kingdom was soon to descend.

The contention of some earlier scholars that the final blow to Hermaeus’ Kingdom was administered by the Kushana (Yueh-Chi) king Kujala Kadphises is no longer accepted as correct. Some scholars also thought that Hemaeus sought the Kushana help in order to ward off the Parthian onslaught and the Kushanas who came as friends ultimately destroyed the King whom they came to help.

But according to N. K. Sastri and others, Hemaeus was overthrown by the Parthians or the Pahlavas and not the Kushanas. This is also borne out by the evidence of the coins. The Parthian King Gondophernes overthrew the Indo-Bactrian rule in India.

Dr. J. N. Banerjee considers that the second Greek conquest of India was more important than the first conducted by Alexander. Two centuries of cultural contact between the Greeks and the Indians was of immense consequences upon both sides. It was not merely a case of the Greek civilisation influencing the already highly developed Indian civilisation, but the reverse was equally true.

Religious ideals and ideas of the Indians had been adopted by the Greeks. We have seen how Nagasena’s answers to the searching intelligent questions of Menander made a deep impression upon the latter and he became i convert to Buddhism. The Pali work Milindapanha gives us the details of the deep religious and philosophical influence of Buddhism upon Menander.

Heliodorus was the Greek ambassador who became a worshipper of Vishnu and set up a Garuda column in honour of the deity at Besnagar. A great officer named Meridark Theodorus enshrined the relics of Buddha in the ancient country of Udayana, i.e., Surat Valley. There must have been more Greeks who became converts to Indian religions.

The Greeks also adopted the Indian way of life and living and gradually got identified with the sons of the soil. A second Theodorus, perhaps a descendant of Meridark Theodorus mentioned above caused a tank to be excavated at Udayana, in honour of all beings. In a stone relief depicting two wrestlers with a name Minandrasa below is Kharosti gives us a glimpse of Graeco-Indian secular life of the time.

In the realm of art the Bactrian Greeks made notable contributions. Die-cutters’ art reached perfection in Bactria and the skill with individual portraits on coins were incised and made the coins of the time the very best of the world. Although the degree of excellence had somewhat deteriorated after the Greeks settled in India yet the art was sufficiently potent to remodel indigenous currency. It was during Bactrian Greek occupation of India that the foundations of the Hellenic School of art of Gandhara were laid which reached its flowering during the Saka-Pahlava as also the early Kushana rule in India.

EDITED FROM historydiscussion.net