GOLD COINS OF THE GREEK KINGS OF BACTRIA: A PROGRAMME OF ANALYSIS OF THE METAL COMPOSITION OF COINS IN THE BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE DE FRANCE

 

The Department of Coins, Medals et Antiquities of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BnF) holds a collection of over 1,000 coins struck by the Hellenistic Kings of Bactria, descendants of the Greeks who arrived in the Central Asia following the conquests of Alexander the Great. The area over which these Kings ruled consists today of parts of Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan. After a brief period of rule under the Seleucid Empire (from the end of the 4th to the middle of the 3rd century BCE), the region became an independent Kingdom under the control of Kings who, for a little over a century, minted bronze, silver, and sometimes, gold coins, according to the existing systems of coinage in the Greek world.

In the BnF collection, gold coins are well-represented with 22 examples: eight of the Seleucid kings (Antiochus I Soter and Antiochus II Theos), ten of the Bactrians (Diodotus I or II, Euthydemus I, and Eucratides I) and four coins considered to be modern forgeries. Thanks to a research grant from the British Institute of Persian Studies, a programme of metal analysis of these objects has been undertaken in partnership with the IRAMAT-CEB (UMR 7065, CNRS-Université d’Orléans) with the aim of determining the composition of minted gold in the Hellenistic Far East.

This programme, led by Simon Glenn of the Ashmolean Museum and the Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents at the University of Oxford has been completed in collaboration with Julien Olivier of the BnF and Maryse Blet-Lemarquand of the CNRS.

AN OUTLINE OF THE PROJECT

Our best form of historical evidence for the Hellenistic period in this part of the world comes from coins. In many cases, coins are the only testimony of the existence of certain Kings; we know of eight Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek rulers attested in written sources, while over 40 are known from their coins. The BnF holds one of the world’s most important collections of these coins, with 1,131 examples. Of these, the Eucratidion is the most famous, but another unique coin, an octadrachm of Euthydemus I, is important for its use in historical reconstructions of the period. The unique status of these coins, and lack of archaeological provenance, has sometimes called their authenticity into question, a concern exacerbated by the high value of all ancient gold coins and therefore their attraction for forgers.

Among the BnF’s collection of 22 coins, one spectacular gold example stands apart. Purchased in 1867 for the royal cabinet of Napoleon III the coin weighs 169.2 g and, as such, is the largest coin known to have been struck in Antiquity. It is unique. The King under whose authority the coin was made, Eucratides I, and who gives it its unique moniker, L’Eucratidion. Very little is known about the kingdoms over which Eucratides and his contemporaries ruled since the usual sources of evidence, familiar from the ancient classical Mediterranean world, are lacking. We have very few sources of literary history, almost no epigraphic evidence, and very few archaeological sites (with the famous exception of Aï Khanoum).

Analysis of the metal of the coins can be a way to address the concern of authenticity. This can be determined not only by comparing the results of the analysis with other ancient gold objects which have already been tested, but also by identifying trace elements in the alloy of the coins which may be indicative of a modern provenance. For example, a relatively high quantity of palladium may be characteristic of gold from South American mines, a source which was not available to the Bactrians and Indo-Greeks, and which would therefore suggest a much more recent date for the manufacture of the coin in question. More broadly, not only can the authenticity of coins be verified, but also questions of the likely source of metal interrogated. Does the particular signature of the gold used in the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms share similarities with that of other Hellenistic gold coins, or does it seem to come from a separate local source?

The calculation of the contents is carried out during the analytical session. The raw data recorded for the coins are calibrated with regard to the signal obtained for a series of standards (top left and right in the photograph above), whose exact composition is known. The final results are presented in the form of a spreadsheet listing the concentrations for each coin of the 20 different elements detected.

WHY ANALYSE GOLD COINS?

The multitude of measured elements is related to the diversity of questions raised by the study of coin alloys, which can be divided into two categories: the study of the major and the minor elements. The analysis of the major elements, for gold coins, obviously gold, associated with silver and copper, leads to information on the metallurgical practices employed in the manufacture of the alloy. These elements make up almost all of the material analysed and their proportions are the consequence of standards laid down by the issuing authority or at least of the treatments applied during the making of the alloy (purification, or on the contrary, debasement). At the same time the study of minor elements (even trace elements present at a level of a few to a few thousand parts per million: 1 ppm = 1mg/kg) allows insight into aspects of the alloy which were not known or even detectable for ancient metallurgists. Some trace elements behave in a particular way. Platinum and palladium, for example, which have the advantage of never dissociating from gold, share its characteristics and therefore constitute a reliable tracer of the metal stock used. For further information on this subject, see M. Blet-Lemarquand, S. Nieto-Pelletier, Fl. Téreygeol, « ‘Tracer’ l’or monnayé : le comportement des éléments traces de l’or au cours des opérations de refonte et d’affinage. Application à la numismatique antique », BSFN, 4, 69e, 2014, p. 90-94. This methodology has already been used in several studies to characterise minted gold in the Eastern Mediterranean following the conquests of Alexander the Great. It appeared that the considerable gold coinage issued by Alexander and then during a large part of the Hellenistic period came, at least for the most part, from the treasures taken from the palaces of the Persian Achaemenid kings. See on this subject Fr. Duyrat, J. Olivier, « Deux politiques de l’or. Séleucides et Lagides au IIIe siècle avant J.-C. », Revue Numismatique 2010, p. 71–93. The relationship, or lack thereof, between this Hellenistic stock of metal and the gold of the kings of Bactria constitutes one of the main research questions of the programme undertaken here.

RESULTS TO COME

Research takes time and the analysis carried out is currently being interpreted. These new data are compared with those obtained previously by the various means of numismatic investigation (study of the iconography, quantification of production, etc.), for example the recent contribution of S. Glenn on this subject (S. Glenn, Money and Power in Hellenistic Bactria, New York, 2020). Finally, these results will be compared with the other historical sources at our disposal, mainly archaeology and ancient texts, to assess the role and importance of the coins produced by the Graeco-Macedonian kings of Bactria between the middle of the third and the middle of the second century BCE. The results of this programme and the conclusions drawn from them were first presented at the XVI International Numismatic Congress held in Warsaw in September 2022 (S. Glenn, J. Olivier, M. Blet-Lemarquand, « Graeco-Bactrian gold: Metal analysis of the coins of the Bibliothèque nationale de France using LA-ICP-MS », XVI International Numismatic Congress, Auditorium Maximum – Hall A, 12 sept. 2022 à 09h40), then as the subject of an article which will be submitted to the Revue Numismatique for publication in 2023.

Written by Simon Glenn, Julien Olivier, and Maryse Blet-Lemarquand

Source  ~ British Institute of Persian Studies

SISYPHUS ~ A TALE OF HUMAN WIT AND DIVINE PUNISHMENT

 

Sisyphus ,or Sisyphos (Ancient Greek: Σίσυφος) is one of the most intriguing figures of Hellenic Tradition. He was king of Corinth and became infamous for his general trickery, with the fact that he cheated death twice being the highlight of his resume. Nonetheless, even though he was called the most cunning of men, Sisyphos truly got what he deserved in the end. 

Sisyphus was the founder of the Isthmian Games and grandfather of the hero Bellerophon. He is best remembered as a poignant symbol of the folly of those who seek to trifle with the natural order of things and avoid humanity's sad but inescapable lot of mortality. The adjective 'Sisyphean' denotes a task which can never be completed.

Sisyphus Violates Xenia and Cheats Death

Sisyphos  was the son of King Aeolus the Thessalian. He  is credited with being the founder and first king of Corinth, having also founded the Isthmian Games. He gained infamy for his trickery and wicked intelligence, but his greatest feat was to cheat Thanatos  ( Death ) and Hades Himself, not once but twice, thus living up to Homer's description of him as "the most cunning of men" (Iliad, 6:153). 

Although Sisyphus helped its city become a commercial hub and invested in navigation, he was a sly and deceitful person. In numerous occasions, he violated the Xenia, the concept of hospitality and generosity shown to travellers and guests, by killing them, so he could prove that he was a ruthless king. These violations made him fall in the eyes of Zeus, who was in charge of promoting the Xenia. Another time that Sisyphus infuriated Zeus when he told the river god Asopus where his daughter Aegina was - Zeus had previously kidnapped her. In return, Asopus created a spring to flow on the Acropolis of Corinth.

As the various insults of Sisyphus started to pile up, Zeus asked Thanatos, to take him and chain him in the Underworld. When Thanatos went to Sisyphus, the king asked how the chains actually worked; Thanatos agreed to give him a demonstration, but Sisyphus swiftly managed to chain Thanatos instead. With Death now in chains, no mortal could die and go to the Underworld. After a while, the situation aggravated, and Ares, the God of War, became truly angry, as the wars that he reigned upon had no casualties and at the same time, severely wounded that sick, kept on suffering. He managed to release Thanatos. 

The second episode proved more successful. After dying for the second time and once again finding himself in the shady Underworld, Sisyphus persuaded Hades to let him out back into the bright realm of the living. For the king had cleverly arranged for his wife not to provide the usual offerings and sacrifices that were due on her husband's death. Working on the kind-hearted wife of Hades, Persephone, the king pleaded that if he were released he would be able to instruct his wife to carry out the proper rituals and all would be well. On his release, Sisyphus, naturally, made no attempt to return to Hades but lived to a ripe old age, largely thanks to Death now not wanting to go anywhere near him following his previous experience of being put in chains.In the end,  God Hermes took him and dragged him there.

How Did Zeus Punish Sisyphus?

When the king died yet again, there was to be no escape for him this time as Zeus himself now intervened. The King of the Gods made sure that humans would not be encouraged by the feats of the trickster Sisyphus. His fate would have to be long and tedious. In Homer's Odyssey the hero Odysseus descends into Hades and, coming across many a fallen hero, he sees Sisyphus and his eternal punishment:

Then I witnessed the torture of Sisyphus, as he wrestled with a huge rock with both hands. Bracing himself and thrusting with hands and feet he pushed the boulder uphill to the top. But every time, as he was about to send it toppling over the crest, its sheer weight turned it back, and once again towards the plain the pitiless rock rolled down. So once more he had to wrestle with the thing and push it up, while the sweat poured from his limbs and the dust rose high above his head. (Odyssey, Book 11:593)

Autolycus & Other Associations

In another tale, Sisyphus used his cunning to finally catch Autolycus, the grandfather of Odysseus and infamous thief. Sisyphus cleverly attached lead tablets to the feet of his own cattle herd, and so when Autolycus stole them, Sisyphus was able to follow the tracks and catch the thief red-handed. The tablets had all been inscribed with the words 'Autolycus stole them.'

Sisyphus was also the founder of the famous Isthmian games of Corinth, held every two years in honour of Poseidon, and one of the four major Panhellenic games which included the Olympic Games. Sisyphus was succeeded as king of Corinth by his son Glaucus – he who was ripped to pieces by his own flesh-eating horses – and then his grandson Bellerophon, whose winged horse Pegasus became a symbol of the city and a feature of Corinthian coins.

Edited from: World  History Encyclopedia, greekmythology.com

FIRST COIN DEPICTION OF BUDDHA IN KUSHAN COINS ~~ GREEK SCRIPT

 

The name Kushan derives from the Chinese term Kouei-chouang, used to describe one branch of the Yueh Chi, a loose confederation of Indo-Europeans people who had been living in northwestern China until they were driven west by the Turko-Mongol Hsiug-nu, in about 170 BCE. The Yueh Chi reached Baktria, in the second century BC and by the first century AC were united under king Kujula. Gradually wresting control of the area from the Scytho-Parthians, the Yueh Chi moved south into the northwest Indian region of Gandhara, today parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan, where they joined the Greeks. With its capital established near Kabul, the Kushan Empire were soon acknowledged as great a power as China, Rome and Parthia. They had adopted a form of the Greek alphabet and initially made coins directly copying Baktrian Greek and Parthian issues. 

Kanishka, a fervent Buddhist, sponsored the fisrt great Buddhist conference at Kanish Vihar, that led to the adoption and promotion of Mahayana Buddhism, a school of thought that revered the life of Buddha as much as his spiritual teaching.  The Buddha coinage was probably struck as a special issue in conjunction with the conference, and the image of Buddha would have made a stunning impact at the time.Along with the famous Hellenistic statues of Buddha by the artistic movement of Gandhara,  Kanishka's coins were among the first representations and provide the earliest firmly datable images of the Buddha.

SPARTAN WAR POETRY

 

You should reach the limits of virtue, before you cross the border of death. '

'How glorious fall the valiant, sword in hand, in front of battle for their native land!'

'Rise up, warriors, take your stand at one another's sides, our feet set wide and rooted like oaks in the ground. '

'...learn to love death's ink-black shadow as much as you love the light of dawn. '

'Here is courage, mankind's finest possession, here is the noblest prize that a young man can endeavor to win

Spartan poet Tyrtaeus

FAILAKA ~ IKAROS ~ THE ISLAND OF KUWAIT WITH A GREEK NAME

 

The history of one island off the coast of Kuwait dates back more than 3,500 years. The island of Fylakio, Greek for outpost, was a coveted prize of the world’s most ancient and famous civilizations.

Failaka’s name is derived from the Greek word for outpost. But Alexander the Great, according to later classical authors such as Strabo and Arrian, gave Failaka the name Ikaros, since it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape. French archaeologists working on the island in recent years have found several stone inscriptions dating to the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE mentioning the name Ikaros, as well as architecture and artifacts that reveal a bustling community with international ties during that period. The island’s accessible fresh water, easily defended coastline, and strategic location also attracted the attention of Alexander’s successors, who vied among themselves for control of regional trade routes. Antiochus I, who ruled the Seleucid Empire in the third century BCE, built a 60-foot-square fort around a well on Failaka. Inside the fortress compound, one small, elegant temple has Ionic columns and a plan that is quintessentially Greek, including an east-facing altar. This was no simple import, however, but a fascinating amalgamation of designs. The column bases, for example, are of the Persian Achaemenid style, similar to those in the capital, Persepolis, burned by Alexander’s troops in the 4th century BCE.

 According to Mathilde Gelin from the French Institute of the Near East in Damascus, who is currently working at the site, this unusual pairing reflects a rare fusion of Greek and Eastern cultures. The sturdy fort eventually grew into a bustling port town, with other temples, houses, and larger fortifications, until its eventual abandonment by the first century BCE. Gelin hopes the current excavations will reveal what role the fort and settlement played in both island life and that of the wider region during a time of remarkable cultural mixing.

The history of Failaka was mentioned as far back as Strabo’s Geography in 25 CE and Arrian’s Anabasis but the Greeks were not the first people to discover it. There is evidence – though contested – that Bahrain’s ancient civilization of Dilmun had a lot to do with Failaka before the Greeks. Also, when the Greeks reached the Island, there was already a native speaking Aramaic population.

During the Hellenistic era, there was a temple dedicated to Artemis on the island; the wild animals of the island were dedicated to the Goddess with a decree for their protection. Strabo wrote that there was a temple of Apollo and an oracle of Artemis  Tauropolus(μαντεῖον Ταυροπόλου). The island is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium and Ptolemaeus.

Several expeditions visited to conduct archaeological work on Failaka. The first expedition was by the Danish in 1970, then the French in 1983. In 2010 an Italian team, led by Associate Professor of Classical Archaeology at University of Perugia, Gian Luca Grassigli, landed at Failaka as well. This team excavated several objects, including porcelain, glass, bronze objects, and pottery.

One of the goals of these expeditions was to finally figure out if Failaka was the same Ikaros mentioned in ancient sources. In 1970, this speculation was put to rest when an inscription of 44 lines was discovered by the Danish expedition. From then on, there has never been so much as a fleeting doubt that the Ikaros mentioned in ancient sources was and still is modern Failaka.

https://khaleejesque.me/

It should also be noted  that both Failaka in the Persian Gulf and Icarus in the Aegean Sea housed bull cults would have made the identification all the more tempting.

During the Hellenistic era, there was a temple dedicated to Artemis on the island; the wild animals of the island were dedicated to the Goddess with a decree for their protection. Strabo wrote that there was a temple of Apollo and an oracle of Artemis  Tauropolus(μαντεῖον Ταυροπόλου). The island is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium and Ptolemaeus.

Edited from  archaeology.org, Wikipedia

GOOGLE MAP WITH ANCIENT GREEK ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

This very interesting Google map includes a lot of major Ancient Greek archaeological sites in various countries and it is regularly updated. For those interested, it is worth visiting. 

Major Places of Ancient Greece

Click here >>>>Map of Ancient Greece   

Source https://www.ancient-greece.org/map.html

THE WORKS AND WORKSHOPS OF HEPHAESTUS

 

Upon his arrival on Mount Olympus, Hephaestus built Himself a secondary forge, after that of Lemnos, and soon other forges were said to have been built beneath each of the ancient world’s known volcanoes; for the work of Hephaestus was said to have been the cause of the volcanic acivity and eruptions. Additionally, forges of Hephaestus were thus to be found upon Sicily, Imbros and Hiera.

 Famously, Hephaestus would be aided at His forges by the three first generation Cyclops, Arges, Brontes and Steropes. Hephaestus also crafted automatons to help in the workshops along with  automatic bellows.

 Automatons were central to the prowess of Hephaestus, enabling movement in non-living creations, and as such, the automatons crafted by the Greek God of Fire included the Bulls of Aeetes, Talos, and His own  handmaidens.

 Many of the features of Mount Olympus were also crafted by Hephaestus, with thrones, golden tables, the marble and gold palaces of the Gods, and also the golden gates at the entrance to Mount Olympus all being built by Him.

 

Hephaestus also made the famous chariots of Helios, Ares and Aphrodite, as well as a chariot for His sons, the Cabeiri. Many of the weapons and personal belongings for the Gods were also forged by Hephaestus and the Cyclopes. Bows and arrows for Apollo, Artemis and Eros, as well as the helmet and sandals of Hermes.

Mortals also benefited from the work of Hephaestus, as He built palaces for various kings, including Aeetes, Alcinous, and Oenopion. 

 Heracles also received a quiver made by Hephaestus, as well as the bronze clappers used by the heroes to scare away the Stymphalian birds.

 

Pelops would also benefit from gifts made by Hephaestus, for it was the God who made the shoulder bone for Pelops, in order to replace the one accidentally eaten by Demeter. Hephaestus also gave Pelops a royal sceptre,  which eventually was  owned by King Agamemnon. 

EDITED FROM www.greeklegendsandmyths.com

A TIMELESS EUCRATIDES COIN IS THE SEAL OF DA AFGHANISTAN BANK

 

The seal of Da Afghanistan Bank has the name of the bank in Pashto at the top and Latin script at the bottom, the year 1939 in which it was established, and a depiction of a Eucratides I-era coin with the Greek text, "ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΕΥΚΡΑΤΙΔΟΥ" which means "Of the great King Eucratides".

On  the coin reverse, Eucratides chose to place the Dioscuri, the sons of Zeus, Castor and Pollux. Quite possibly, this was to emphasize his own royal ancestry. The monolingual coinage used only Greek legends and conformed to the Attic weight standard. It was issued in Bactria, north of the Hindu Kush mountains. 

Edited from Coins of India