ALEXANDER THE GREAT CROSSES THE HINDU- KUSH

  

After his men suffered from frostbite and severe hunger while crossing a 3,700-meter-high pass in the Hindu Kush in April, when mountains were still covered in snow, Alexander got his hands on Bessus, who was turned over by his allies. Bessus was tied a post on the side of a road. After he was taunted and jeered, his ears and nose were cut off. After that he may have been dismembered but more likely he was crucified.

 Arrian wrote: “After the transaction of this business, he advanced against Bactra and Bessus, reducing the Drangians and Gadrosians to subjection on his march. He also reduced the Arachotians to subjection and appointed Menon viceroy over them. He then reached the Indians, who inhabit the land bordering on that of the Arachotians. All these nations he reached marching through deep snow and his soldiers experiencing scarcity of provisions and severe hardship. Learning that the Areians had again revolted, in consequence of Satibarzanes invading their land with , cavalry, which he had received from Bessus, he dispatched against them Artabazus the Persian with Erigyius and Caranus two of the Companions, also ordering Phrataphernes, viceroy of the Parthians, to assist them in attacking the Areians. An obstinately contested battle then took place between the troops of Erigyius and Caranus and those of Satibarzanes; nor did the barbarians give way until Satibarzanes, encountering Erigyius, was struck in the face with a spear and killed. Then the barbarians gave way and fled with headlong speed. 

 “In the meantime, Alexander was leading his army towards Mount Caucasus, where he founded a city and named it Alexandreia. Having offered sacrifice here to the Gods to whom it was his custom to sacrifice, he crossed Mount Caucasus, after appointing Proëxes, a Persian, viceroy over the land, and leaving Neiloxenus son of Satyrus, one of the Companions, with an army as superintendent. According to the account of Aristobulus, Mount Caucasus is as lofty as any in Asia, and most of it is bare, at any rate in that part where Alexander crossed it. This range of mountains stretches out so far that they say even that Mount Taurus, which forms the boundary of Cilicia and Pamphylia, springs from it, as do other great ranges which have been distinguished from the Caucasus by various names according to the position of each. Aristobulus says that in this part of the Caucasus nothing grew except terebinth trees and silphium; notwithstanding which, it was inhabited by many people, and many sheep and oxen graze there; because sheep are very fond of silphium. For if a sheep smells it even from a distance, it runs to it and feeds upon the flower. They also dig up the root, which is devoured by the sheep. For this reason in Cyrene, some drive their flocks as far as possible away from the places where their silphium is growing; others even enclose the place with a fence, so that even if the sheep should approach it they would not be able to get within the enclosure. For the silphium is very valuable to the Cyrenaeans.

 “Bessus, accompanied by the Persians who had taken part with him in the seizure of Darius, and by, of the Bactrians themselves and the Daans who dwelt on this side the Tanais, was laying waste the country at the foot of Mount Caucasus, in order to prevent Alexander from marching any further, both by the desolation of the land between the enemy and himself and by the lack of provisions. But none the less did Alexander keep up the march, though with difficulty, both on account of the deep snow and from the want of necessaries; but yet he persevered in his journey. When Bessus was informed that Alexander was now not far off, he crossed the river Oxus, and having burnt the boats upon which he had crossed, he withdrew to Nautaca in the land of Sogdiana. He was followed by Spitamenes and Oxyartes, with the cavalry from Sogdiana, as well as by the Daans from the Tanais. But the Bactrian cavalry, perceiving that Bessus had resolved to take to flight, all dispersed in various directions to their own abodes."

Source: factsanddetails.com

THE MARCH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO BACTRIA ( AFGHANISTAN ) IN PURSUIT OF BESSUS

 

Arrian wrote: “Having settled these affairs, he [ Alexander the Great ] marched to Zadracarta, the largest city of Hyrcania, where also was the seat of the Hyrcanian government. Tarrying here 15 days, he offered sacrifice to the Gods according to his custom, and celebrated a gymnastic contest, after which he began his march towards Parthia; thence to the confines of Areia and to Susia, a city in that province, where Satibarzanes, the viceroy of the Areians, came to meet him. To this man he restored his viceregal dignity, and with him sent Anaxippus, one of the Companions, to whom he gave 40 horse-lancers so that he might be able to station them as guards of the localities, in order that the Areians might not be injured by the army in its march through their land. At this time came to him some Persians, who informed him that Bessus had assumed the erect tiara and was wearing the Persian dress, calling himself Artaxerxes instead of Bessus, and asserting that he was king of Asia. They said he had in attendance upon him the Persians who had escaped into Bactra and many of the Bactrians themselves; and that he was expecting the Scythians also to come to him as allies. [Source: Arrian the Nicomedian (CE. 92-175), “Anabasis of Alexander”, translated, by E. J. Chinnock, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1884, gutenberg.org]

 “Alexander, having now all his forces together, went towards Bactra, where Philip son of Menela's came to him out of Media with the Greek mercenary cavalry which were under his own command, those of the Thessalians who had volunteered to remain, and the men of Andromachus. Nicanor, the son of Parmenio, the Commander of the shield-bearing guards, had already died of disease. While Alexander was on his way to Bactra, he was informed that Satibarzanes, viceroy of Areia, had killed Anaxippus and the horse-lancers who were with him, had armed the Areians and collected them in the city of Artacoana, which was the capital of that nation. It was also said that he had resolved, as soon as he ascertained that Alexander had advanced, to leave that place and go with his forces to Bessus, with the intention of joining that prince in an attack upon the Macedonians, wherever a chance might occur. When he received this news, he stopped the march towards Bactra, and taking with him the Companion cavalry, the horse-lancers, the archers, the Agrianians and the regiments of Amyntas and Coenus, and leaving the rest of his forces there under the command of Craterus, he made a forced march against Satibarzanes and the Areians; and having travelled stades in two days came near Artacoana.

Satibarzanes, however, no sooner perceived that Alexander was near, than being struck with terror at the quickness of his arrival, he took to flight with a few Areian horsemen. For he was deserted by the majority of his soldiers in his flight, when they also learned that Alexander was at hand. The latter made rapid marches in pursuit of the enemy, killed some of the men whom he discovered to be guilty of the revolt and who at that time had left their villages, fleeing, some one way, some another; and others of them he sold into slavery. He then proclaimed Arsames, a Persian, viceroy over the Areians. Being now joined by the men who had been left behind with Craterus, he marched into the land of the Zarangaeans, and reached the place where their seat of government was. But Barsaëntes, who at that time had possession of the land, being one of those who had fallen upon Darius in his flight, learning that Alexander was approaching, fled to the Indians who live this side of the river Indus. But they arrested him and sent him back to Alexander, by whom he was put to death on account of his guilty conduct towards Darius."

More about Bactria here : https://greekasia.blogspot.com/2019/05/bactria-ancient-greek-state-in.html

SOURCE: factsanddetails.com

MILITARY FORCES OF THE GRECOBACTRIAN KINGDOM

Alexander and Seleucus I both settled Greeks in Bactria, while  to keep their Macedonian settlers farther west. Greek garrisons in the satrapy of Bactria were housed in fortresses called phrouria and at major cities. Military colonists were settled in the countryside and were each given an allotment of land called a kleros. These colonists numbered in the tens of thousands, and were trained in the fashion of the Macedonian army. A Greek army in Bactria during the anti-Macedonian revolt of 323 numbered 23,000.

IMAGE SOURCE

The army of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom was then a multi-ethnic force with Greek colonists making up large portions of the infantry as pike phalanxes, supported by light infantry units of local Bactrians and mercenary javelin-wielding Thureophoroi.

 The cavalry arm was very large for a Hellenistic army and composed mostly of native Bactrian, Sogdian and other Indo-Iranian light horsemen. 

Polybius mentions 10,000 horses at the Battle of the Arius river in 208 BCE. Greco-Bactrian armies also included units of heavily armored cataphracts and small elite units of companion cavalry. The third arm of the Greco-Bactrian army was the Indian war elephants, which are depicted in some coins with a tower (thorakion) or howdah housing men armed with bows and javelins. This force grew as the Greco-Bactrian kingdom expanded into India and was widely depicted in Greco-Bactrian coinage. Other units in the Bactrian military included mercenaries or levies from various surrounding peoples such as the Scythians, Dahae, Indians and Parthians.

 The Greco-Bactrian rulers  had war elephants,which were used in warfare against rivals. An early source mentions the presence of war elephants in Bactria during the reign of King Euthydemus I ( 206 BCE) . During his eastern campaign, King Antiochus III the Great tried to take back the provinces of Bactria and Parthia. As a result of this campaign, Euthydemus and Antiochus signed a peace agreement, in which the Greco-Bactrian King had to give all his war elephants. 

Also, archaeological finds testify to the presence of war elephants in Bactria. One of the Greco-Bactrian artifacts that have been found is a horse's decorative plague, which shows a turreted war elephant .One of the warriors is wearing a distinctively Greek helmet. The other warrior wears a thick chevelure. Both carry long spears. In the Hellenistic Times, towers were put on elephants.It is safe to assume that war elephants were used for a long time, since there is reference to them in the much later Milinda Panha.
 Usually, the elephants were placed at the front of the troops.The aim for them was to break the enemy line.If the enemy resisted, the Greco-Bactrian phalanx would open to give way to the animals and after they retreated, the different pedestrian and cavalry groups would enter the battle.

Sources : Ancient History Encyclopedia ,Wikipedia, idosi.org , Battles of the Ancients 

THE CONQUEST OF BARYGAZA BY THE GREEKS

The march to Barygaza in 183 BCE.

Commanding one half of his army himself, Demetrius headed south down the Indus River, following in the footsteps of Alexander the Great, his role-model. Soon enough, after conquering everything in his path, he reached the Indian Ocean.However, as soon as he arrived there, serious problems began. Hearing of new troubles back in Bactria Demetrius himself was forced to return home- Eucratides had revolted and tried to take control of Bactria. Yet, this obstacle did not prevent him from continuing his plan for the conquest of India.

Putting his army under the command of Apollodotus -who was most likely either Demetrius’ youngest brother or one of his best generals- Demetrius ordered the conquest to go on without him. This move proved to be the wisest, since that army continued its successful course under Apollodotus' command, advancing as far south as the flourishing port of Barygaza (modern day Bharuch); a truly outstanding achievement for a Greek army.

The Greeks built cities on the western part of India,in the area of Gujarat, making them centers for trade. Ruins of these cities are still found today.

Edited from: turningpointsoftheancientworld.com

THE DESCENT OF THE MYRIAD AS A PRECURSOR OF THE CAMPAIGNS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT

The end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BCE finds Sparta a winner and Athens a loser to capitulate on unbearable terms. At that time, Greeks from the city-states began gradually to work as mercenaries. Thousands of Greek warriors, trained in combat operations and strategies, offered their services to kings, contenders of thrones and satraps of the Persian kingdom.

The machinations that took place in the Persian court provided opportunities for the Greek soldiers to be involved in revolutions to overthrow the power. The riches of the Great King constituted a powerful lure for the Greek soldiers, whose abilities in combat were recognized and admired particularly in the ancient world.

In "Anabasis", Xenophon records the course of the mercenary army of the Greeks step by step, consisting of soldiers coming from different city-states, from the coast of Asia Minor to the battle of Cunaxa on September 5, 401 BCE and their return from Cunaxa to Trabzon and from there to Pergamon. The Greek mercenaries fought for Cyrus the Younger, against his brother Artaxerxes, who was on the Persian throne.

The significance and role of the Anabasis of the Myriad was particularly important for antiquity, especially for Greece. Xenophon's work was known in the ancient world, and is a precursor of Alexander the Great's campaign half a century later. The Greek historian has provided important information on issues of military, administrative, psychological, moral, economic, cultural and geographic interest:

i. First of all, Xenophon accurately records the course of the army from one city to the other listing the different distances covered and the stops that took place.: He also describes in detail the geomorphology of the Persian mainland, through the reporting of rivers, lakes, deserts and mountains. Moreover, the administrative division of the state, their satrapies and borders, as well as the peoples living in each region, are thoroughly mentioned.

ii. In 'Anabasis', the areas beyond the Tigris and Euphrates rivers are described for the first time.These rivers will later be crossed by Alexander the Great. In addition, the capture of cities, villages and fortifications will help the Greeks to get to know and study the interior of the Persian empire.


iii. The claim of the royal throne by Cyrus and his controversy with Artaxerxes fully reflects what was happening within the Persian court. The successors of the throne clashed in order to claim the kingdom and riches of the empire. The satraps of the provinces were often involved in these controversies, always with the expectation of material and moral exchange. Several satraps rebelled against the Persian King claiming the independence of their province. The internal disputes of the Persian Empire were maintained during the campaign of Alexander the Great.

v. The satraps didn't keep a united front against the troops passing through their province to fight the Grand King. So, they either conspired with the invaders hoping that they would overthrow the King, or kept a neutral stance, trying not to create problems so that the Greek troops would quickly leave their area without looting it. Finally, there were occasions when satraps fought against the invaders, claiming the favour of the Persian King for the services they offered.

v. The Army of the Myriad suffered several hardships. Lack of food, fatigue, constant battles and, in general, disputes over the correctness of the choices of the Greek generals made the situation extremely difficult. The management of the Greeks on such crises and disagreements among soldiers, would become a model for the campaigns to be carried out in the future. The distance separating the soldiers from their homeland, combined with the anxiety of survival, would act as handicap for any attempt to move further into the Persian Empire. Similar problems would be presented to the Macedonian army with its continuous course to the Asian mainland during the campaign of Alexander the Great.

vi. There were significant differences between the battle tactics of the Greek and the Persian armies. The Persian army did not change its structure, relying primarily on its arithmetic superiority over the opponent and the forces of the cavalry and the archers. On the other hand, the Greeks relied on the courage, the bravery, the maneuvers and the discipline of the soldiers. The Persian army was unable to withstand a direct attack from the Greek soldiers- as a result, they retreated and scattered.


vii. Also, one of the usual tactics of the Persian army was to leave the battlefield when their leader was killed. This fact was also confirmed in Cunaxa, when, despite the victory of the Myriads, the death of Cyrus caused the Persian part of his army to flee for their lives. The victory of the Myriads became a defeat, the moment Cyrus died. This practice will later be exploited by Alexander the Great when, as the head of the Macedonian cavalry, he attacked the central part of the Persian army faction to kill King Darius.

viii. One century after their invasion to Greece, the Persians were not invincible-  despite the wealth they possessed and despite their more active involvement in Greek affairs through the financial support of rival cities-states. As was the case in the Persian Wars, they were defeated by the Greek mercenary army.

ix. It was the first time that the Greeks clashed with the Persians in a battle which took place in the mainland of the Persian empire, just 70 kilometers north of Babylon. Despite the adversity they faced and the lack of proper supplies, the Greek mercenaries were making a major victory. Now, the Great King was beaten within his empire.

x. Despite the hardships and difficult conditions that the Army of Myriads faced, they managed to return to Greece. When they began the journey into the interior of the Persian empire, the troops numbered about 13,000 hoplites from various city-states. About 8,600 of them returned home; that is,more than half of the original army survived, despite the constant battles and the heavy winter in the distant East.

xi. Finally, the achievement of the Greek mercenaries took place despite the campaign's objective difficulties. The heterogeneous character of the army and the fact that the hoplites came from various city-states of metropolitan Hellas, were secondary issues. The Myriad were mercenaries and the only motivation for their participation in Cyrus' effort to claim the throne of the Persian Empire, was money that would provide them with a better life. However, victory revealed the potential for a comprehensive and properly trained military campaign in the near future. This army would be placed under the orders of Alexander the Great.

In conclusion, the victory of the Myriad against the Persian army, their successful course and return from the interior of the Persian empire, and the adversities that they managed to overcome renewed the feeling of power and superiority of the Greeks towards the Persians. After their defeat at Plataea, the Persians did not try to campaign against the main Greek territory again- instead, they focused on their economic interference in the city-states of the Greek mainland and their controversies over the hegemony of Greece. Persian gold would be a cause of friction, with Greek cities scorning for the favor of the Great King. The Persian King will intervene internally and act as the regulator and referee of the issues. Persian involvement will continue throughout the 4th century BCE.

The "Anabasis" provided important information to the ancient world about the structure and composition of the Persian Empire. The descent of the Myriad managed to bring out the Persian weaknesses. 66 years later, when Alexander the Great would subjugate the Persian Empire, he would be confronted with much of what Xenophon has recorded in his book. The course of the mercenary army from the coasts of Asia Minor to the Mesopotamian region and its return through inaccessible paths, the constant battles with the peoples of the empire, the handling of disagreements within the army and the bad weather conditions they endured, inspired the ancient Greek world- putting an end to the legend of the great Persian King and his supposedly mighty army. The policy of Philip II and then Alexander the Great for a campaign of the Greeks for the subjugation of the Persians had a chance of success thanks to the achievement of the Myriad.

Edited from : Historical Quest  

THE MALLIAN CAMPAIGN ~ THE SECOND VICTORY OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN INDIA

The Mallian campaign was conducted by Alexander the Great from November 326 to February 325 BCE, against the Malli of the Punjab. Alexander was defining the Eastern limit of his power by marching down-river along the Hydaspes to the Acesines-now the Jhelum and Chenab-, but the Malli and the Oxydraci combined to refuse passage through their territory. Alexander sought to prevent their forces meeting, and made a swift campaign against them which successfully pacified the region between the two rivers. 

 At the time of the campaign against the Mallians, Alexander's conquests stretched from Greece into India; some of the Indian tribes had previously been part of the Persian Empire. The political situation in Greece was quiet.

Alexander's Indian conquests, with the Mallian campaign at the confluence of the Hydraotis and the Hydaspes.

Background of the Mallian Campaign

Alexander had defeated King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes in May 326 BCE, and then stayed in his territory for thirty days. During this time, he reconciled King Porus and his other vassal, Taxiles, with each other, as they were both to be his new vassals. Alexander achieved this by arbitrating their disputes and then arranging a family alliance.He then marched northeast, toward the Glaukanokoi, and received the submission of their thirty-seven cities. Abisares of Kashimir submitted to the Macedonians as well, and gave them many gifts, including forty elephants.Alexander proposed to march further east to the River Ganges and fight the powerful empires of the Nanda and the Gangaridai. According to Arrian, he expressed his thoughts thus: 
"Now if anyone desires to hear where our warfare will find its end and limit, let him know that the distance from where we are to the river Ganges is no longer great; and this you will find is connected to the Hyrcanian sea; for the great sea surrounds the entire earth. I will also demonstrate to the Macedonians and their allies not only that the Indian gulf is confluent with the Persian, but the Hycranian gulf is confluent with the Indian."

At the Beas River, Alexander's army mutinied. They did not share his ambition and wished to return home. The army had followed Alexander faithfully in battle for eight years already. It had been raining for the last seventy days.Moreover, they had suffered many casualties at the Battle of Hydaspes. Coenus' spoke on behalf of the troops and pleaded with Alexander to allow them to return, to the agreement of the other officers. Alexander finally gave in.

Shortly after this, Memnon brought up reinforcements of 6,000 cavalry from Thrace, and 7,000 infantry. The reinforcements brought with them 25,000 suits of armour. Had these reinforcements come sooner, Alexander could have persuaded his soldiers to march on. Upset, but resigned, Alexander decided to head south, following the river Hydaspes, after the omens ostensibly declared it unfavourable to march further east. Initially, the fleet and army just sailed down the river, occasionally marching short distances inland.They were met with only slight opposition.

Alexander received news that the Mallians and the Oxydracians had decided to trade hostages with each other, and moved all their valuables into their fortified cities. They decided to combine their forces in order to prevent him from marching through their territory. Reports suggested that they had a total of 90,000 foot, 10,000 horse and 900 chariots. In spite of the fact that the two had traditionally been enemies, it was reported that they had laid aside their disputes to fight the Macedonians. Alexander decided to prevent them from joining their forces.


It was Alexander's habit, as with his father, to campaign in all seasons of the year.In Greece, this meant the winter, but in India, it meant the rainy season or cold season. The Mallian alliance didn't know about this practice of the Macedonian ruler, and therefore might have expected more time to prepare for Alexander's advance.

First Phase of the Mallian Campaign

Upon receiving the news of the alliance in November, Alexander raced out to prevent the junction of the two tribes. He reached the area within five days, by sailing down the Hydaspes with the fleet he had recently built. The boats had been built to be taken apart and put back together, so that they could be conveyed across the Punjab. There were, as there are now, five rivers in the Punjab - it is sometimes referred to as "The Valley of the Five Rivers" - so it was necessary to drag the boats from one river to the next.The Hydaspes and Acesines were dangerous to sail down in this area, and the Macedonians sustained considerable damage to some of their ships, in addition to some casualties. They used two sorts of vessels, warships and the transport ships known as "round vessels". The transport ships were not damaged, as their round hulls helped them navigate the difficult channels. By contrast, the warships had considerable difficulties, and many were destroyed. Their double rows of oars meant that the bottom row of oars would get caught on the river bank.At one point Alexander even took off his armour, preparing to jump in the water, for fear that his ship was going to sink.

However, the Macedonians got through. Arriving in the confederacies' territory, they set about the task of pacification. While their ships were undergoing repairs, the Macedonians first attacked a tribe to the west called the Sibea.This tribe, alleged to have 40,000 warriors, was on the right bank, and thus the Macedonians had to cross the river in order to attack them. The Macedonians destroyed their capital city and burned their crops, slew all the males, and enslaved the women and children. Previously, Alexander had been scrupulous about being merciful towards the inhabitants of his newly conquered territories. This marked change in policy was intended as an example to the other tribes. It was done, allegedly, to secure the Macedonians' lines of communications, which, being already over-extended, were at a serious risk of being cut.They extended all the way from Babylon to the Punjab; if they were cut anywhere the entire expedition could have been compromised. No half measures were taken in securing the lines of communications in their extended condition.

Alexander was determined not to let the Mallians escape him, and therefore he planned a sophisticated campaign that allowed him to retain the interior lines, so that he could reinforce himself at any threatened point.


He added Philip's corps, Polyperchon's brigade, the horse-bowmen and the elephants which had been marching down the river, to Craterus' force. He then ordered Nearchus to sail down the river with the fleet and establish a base to conduct further operations at the junction of the Acesines and the Hydraotis. In addition, the base would be used to catch any escaping Mallians.Three days later, Alexander ordered Craterus to follow him down the river on the right bank.

Alexander divided his army into three parts and crossed over onto the left bank. His own force was to march directly across the desert, and was to take upon itself the most difficult work, as was his habit. His force consisted of hypaspists, archers, Agrianians, Peithon's brigade of the phalanx, the horse archers and half the Companion cavalry. While it was a difficult march across the desert, the march was to serve two purposes; first, to surprise the Mallians, and secondly to afford him a strategic position from which he could drive them to the south,so that they would be pressed towards the rest of his forces. Hephaestion's force was ordered to march opposite Craterus' force, on the left bank of the same river. He was sent five days ahead of Alexander, in order to ensure that any retreating forces Alexander impelled would be easily caught if they managed to evade Craterus. Ptolemy I Soter's force was ordered to follow Alexander's march three days later, in order to ensure that any Mallians that did escape to the north were still captured and slaughtered.

Second Phase 

At this point, the tentative alliance between the Mallians and the Oxydracians began to break down.The two tribes could not agree on who was to lead them, and their forces retreated to their strongholds, each group to fend for themselves.

After starting across the desert, Alexander marched continuously, with only a single half-day halt at a place where water could be obtained. His detachment of the army marched 45 miles (72 km) in about 24 hours. Arriving near the city of Kot Kamalia at daybreak, Alexander rode ahead with his Companion cavalry and totally surprised the Mallians so much, that many of them were still outside the city. As Alexander had expected, they did not think he would cross the desert.A vast number of them were slain, and Alexander chased those whom he could not massacre into the city. He then created a cordon of cavalry around this relatively small town, and awaited the arrival of his infantry.

When the infantry arrived, Alexander detached Perdiccas with the cavalry of Cleitus the White and his own cavalry, and ordered him to surround another Mallian city to the southeast. However, he gave him specific instructions not to actually besiege the city, for fear that some of the inhabitants would flee and give news of what was going on to others in the area, giving them time to escape. Alexander desired that Perdiccas should await his own arrival with the rest of the force. This is another example of Alexander taking up each and every task he deemed to be important in person-a practice he repeated throughout all of his campaigns.Soon ,Alexander took the city that he was currently besieging, using siege equipment such as the torsion catapult.The torsion catapult was the most powerful of the era, and had revolutionised siege warfare; Alexander would use it to capture all the other cities in the region. Alexander's army then overcame the city's garrison, two thousand strong, and killed them all. When Perdiccas arrived at the town he was supposed to take, he found it empty; he chased down the survivors and put them to the sword.

Alexander allowed his men to rest until the first watch of the night. After this, the Macedonians continued to pursue the Mallians, the next town being the modern Brahmin town of Atari. Upon arriving, Alexander immediately sent his phalanx forward and prepared to undermine the city walls. However, the Indians, who were by now familiar with Alexander's expertise in besieging, decided they could hold out better in the citadel. The Macedonians followed. Alexander led a siege of the citadel, bringing his phalanx up towards the walls. The citadel was burnt, and five thousand Mallians died within its walls.


After taking a single day's rest, Alexander headed for the city of Mallians (this city has been identified as present-day Multan, although this identification is not certain). However, the Mallians had crossed the river already, and were awaiting his arrival on the western bank.

Final Phase

Before continuing his campaign against the Mallians, Alexander sent Peithon and Demetrius back towards the river, the forests, and the desert.Their orders were to kill anyone who did not submit. The reason for these orders was that many of the cities were deserted when Alexander's forces reached them.Refugees from these cities had been taken prisoner in the forests in the area alongside the Hydraotis.

The Malli offered battle to Alexander on the high ground of the western bank of the Hydraotis.However, Alexander and his army had become such an object of fear in their eyes that he decided to charge them across the river. This was not a new tactic, as his father Phillip II had perfected the cavalry arm of Macedon to such an extent that the infantry, on many occasions, would only attack after the cavalry. The Mallians fled without the Macedonian infantry even joining battle. Alexander pursued them with his cavalry for 5 miles (8.0 km).

Cavalry attack

The Mallians, realising how small the number of Macedonian cavalry was, chose to stop and fight them. Arrian estimated that there were fifty thousand Mallians at this point. As expert as the Companion cavalry was, Alexander had placed himself in a vulnerable situation. However, the Macedonians formed up and circled around the Mallians, attacking them in the flank and rear. Eventually, the Macedonian light infantry came up, and the Mallians lost heart and fled to the city of Mallians ( modern-day Multan) .Alexander followed them to the city, and then rested his columns for the rest of the day.

Siege of the citadel

Alexander arranged two separate forces, one to be led by himself and the other by Perdiccas. The Indians almost immediately retreated into the main citadel,which was quite substantial- its walls extended for a mile around. However, Alexander was able to force one of the gates, and made his way into the outer parts of the citadel. There the Macedonians began to undermine the next layer of walls.

Alexander quickly became impatient at the pace of the siege, so he grabbed a ladder and went up it himself. He was followed by only two soldiers- Peukestas and Leonnatus,who was Alexander's bodyguard.Also, another soldier, Abreas managed to climb with him.The rest of the soldiers, nervous about the safety of their King, crowded the ladders to get up so that they could protect him. There were too many of them, and the ladders collapsed under the weight. The Mallians realised who Alexander was, and focused their energies on him. Many of Alexander's men held out their arms and called for him to jump down to them. The King, however, would not.
Alexander leaped into the inner area of the citadel.

The ladder breaks stranding Alexander and a few companions, within the Mallian town. Work by  André Castaigne (1898-1899).

As Arrian describes :
 "If he leaped down within the fort he might perhaps by this very act strike the Indians with terror, and if he did not, but should only thereby be incurring danger, at any rate he would die not ignobly after performing great deeds of valor worthy of recollection by men of after times. Forming this resolution, he leaped down from the wall into the citadel" 
 The Indians recognized that he was the leader of the enemy, and they did not dare to approach him, but instead attacked all 3 of them with their bows.
"Those who advanced nearer to him he again kept off with his sword; so that the barbarians were no longer willing to approach him, but standing round him cast at him from all sides whatever any one happened to have or could get hold of at the time" . 
 "In the meantime, Peucestas and Abreas, the soldier entitled to double pay, and after them Leonnatus, being the only men who happened to have scaled the wall before the ladders were broken, had leaped down and were fighting in front of the king." 
- Arrian

An arrow injured Alexander's lung. Air and blood exited from the wound around the arrow. Evidently, pneumothorax developed, and Alexander quickly felt dizziness and fainted, falling on his shield. Flavius Arrianus’s narration is very descriptive: 
“But although he was faint with exhaustion, he defended himself, as long as his blood was still warm. But the blood streaming out copiously and without ceasing at every expiration of breath, he was seized with a dizziness and swooning, and bending over fell upon his shield.” 
- Arrian

  The Macedonians believed Alexander dead. After gaining entrance to the city, they started slaughtering everyone in revenge.

When the Macedonians reached Alexander, some of them placed him on a shield and quickly ran back with him to a tent. An incision had to be made in order to get the arrow out, however everyone was afraid to make the incision themselves. Perdiccas came forward and volunteered to make the incision.The arrow head was withdrawn from the wound. The soldiers were very anxious about his health, since they believed he was the only one who could lead them back home. For some days he hovered between life and death.

The main body of the army, four days away from Alexander's location, heard that he was dead.Rumours spread like wildfire, and when reports came in that he was alive and was recovering, they would not believe it. Alexander himself ,after he started to recover, asked to be placed upon a boat and travel to the army's location. However, his health was in such a delicate state that during his course down the river they would not even row the boat, for fear that the oars slapping the water would disturb him. 

When he arrived to the camp, he greeted his army, and they responded with cheers, thanks to the Gods, and even tears. Alexander requested a horse to ride in order to encourage his men. 
"When he was seen again mounting his horse, the whole army re-echoed with loud clapping of hands, so that the banks of the river and the groves near them reverberated with the sound” ... “On approaching his tent he dismounted from his horse, so that he might be seen walking. Then the men came near, some on one side, others on the other, some touching his hands, others his knees, others only his clothes. Some only came close to get a sight of him, and went away having chanted his praise, while others threw garlands upon him, or the flowers which the country of India supplied at that season of the year."  - Arrian

Four days afterwards, the Macedonians reached a fertile country which the natives had completely deserted. Alexander was confronted by some of his close companions. They told him that he should not expose himself so recklessly in battle.
Nonetheless, the last of the Mallians surrendered, soon followed by the demoralized Oxydracae. Alexander ordered the establishment of a new satrapy, which was to be ruled by a Macedonian named Peithon and Oxyartes, the father of Roxane. He also founded a new town, Alexandria, near the confluence of the Indus and the Acesines, probably on the site of an older, Persian settlement. Thracian veterans and natives were to live here, not far from modern Uch.The Mallian ambassadors offered Alexander 300 four horse chariots as tokens of surrendering. In addition to this, Alexander also received 1,000 Indian shields, a number of lions and 100 talents.

SOURCE: Wikipedia, Livius

THE ELEPHANT WHICH WAS HONOURED BY ALEXANDER THE GREAT

Alexander the Great and his army fought the Indian army of King Porus at the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great. Plutarch writes about the battle at his work Parallel Lives, "Life of Alexander". The Indian King Ambhi (Greeks called him Taxiles in their scripts) supported Alexander with his forces. Philostratus the Elder ,in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana, writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who fought bravely against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to the Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that such a great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios". (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ).

SOURCE:Wikipedia

THE CONQUEST OF PATALIPUTRA BY THE GREEKS ( EASTERN INDIA )

Then, after having approached Saketa…the Yavanas (Greeks),valiant in battle, will reach “The Town of the Flower-Standard”(Pataliputra). Then once Pataliputra has been reached and its mud-walls cast down, all the realm will be in disorder.

Indian texts
(Yuga Purana: Slokas 47-48)

By the time the Greek King Demetrius had risen to power in Bactria, India was no stranger to invaders from the West. First Darius I and then Alexander the Great would fix their eyes on this sub-continent. 

Yet, by the start of the 2nd century BCE, India was no longer the enigma that it had been for past invaders. By then – following amicable relations and peace with the Hellenistic World for the past 100 years – Greek knowledge of the country’s northern lands had significantly increased. Quickly those in the West began to realise how daunting a task it would be for anyone planning to invade that land – the Indian kingdoms could boast of having some of the largest armies in the world. Demetrius, however, remained undeterred. He saw an opportunity; a vast empire was crumbling.

 The great Mauryan Empire, whose past rulers, like Chandragupta Maurya and the Buddhist hero, Ashoka was coming to an end.    In the height of this empire, their lands and armies became so formidable that they had even threatened the Hellenistic World in Asia. By 184 BCE, however, that Mauryan ‘golden age’ had long passed.

After the assassination of Chandragupta’s last direct descendant by the usurper Pushyamitra Shunga, many Indians would voice their dissatisfaction to his accession. Internal turmoil inevitably followed.

 Hearing of this trouble in India, Demetrius saw a great opportunity.  He believed that he would save Northern India from this turmoil, reviving the once-great Mauryan Empire with himself as King.  Gathering a large army, Demetrius prepared to follow in the footsteps of Alexander. The second ever Greek invasion into India was about to commence.

Crossing over the Hindu Kush with a large army of Greeks and native Bactrians, Demetrius arrived to a hero’s welcome. To many Indians this Greek king was the man they had been waiting for.

With little difficulty, Demetrius soon made great progress into North-West India. As city after city realigned with him and his cause, the Greek King quickly began to establish his own kingdom on that part of the Indian subcontinent. There Demetrius would find wealth and willing new Indian recruits aplenty. Yet this was just the beginning.

After many successes, a part of Demetrius' army, under the command of Menander, marched towards Pataliputra. Menander was one of Demetrius’ greatest and most loyal generals.  Setting off from Taxila – the most prestigious city in North West India – he and his army would have likely faced constant opposition, fighting through hundreds of miles of territory loyal to Pushyamitra. Yet Menander and his army of Greeks, Bactrians and Indians, proved unstoppable.

Beating off any attempts to halt their advance, the Greek army traversed almost the entirety of Northern India. Finally, they would reach Pataliputra: The former Mauryan capital situated on the banks of the Ganges River. 

Soon enough, as predicted, Menander and his army tore down Pataliputra’s mud walls and the city fell to the invaders. The capital of the most formidable Indian Empire for the past 200 years was now in the hands of forces loyal to Demetrius; a Greek now ruled the most prestigious city in India.

  SOURCE: http://turningpointsoftheancientworld.com

THE BATTLE OF GAUGAMELA

The Battle of Gaugamela was fought October 1, 331 BCE during the Wars of Alexander the Great (335-323 BCE).

Having beaten the Persians at Issus in 333 BCE, Alexander the Great moved to secure his hold on Syria, the Mediterranean coast, and Egypt. Having completed these efforts, he again looked east with the goal of toppling Darius III's Persian Empire. Marching into Syria, Alexander crossed the Euphrates and Tigris without opposition in 331 BCE. Desperate to halt the Macedonian advance, Darius scoured his empire for resources and men. Gathering them near Arbela, he chose a wide plain for the battlefield as he felt that it would facilitate the use of his chariots and elephants, as well as allow his greater numbers to bear.

Alexander's Plan

Advancing to within four miles of the Persian position, Alexander made camp and met with his commanders. In the course of the talks, Parmenion suggested that the army launch a night attack on the Persians as Darius' host outnumbered them. This was dismissed by Alexander as the plan of an ordinary general and he instead outlined an attack for the next day. His decision proved correct as Darius had anticipated a nighttime assault and kept his men awake through the night in anticipation. Moving out the next morning, Alexander arrived on the field and deployed his infantry into two phalanxes, one in front of the other.

Setting the Stage

On the right of the front phalanx was Alexander's Companion cavalry along with additional light infantry. To the left, Parmenion led additional cavalry and light infantry. Supporting the front lines were cavalry and light infantry units which were echeloned back at 45-degree angles. In the coming fight, Parmenion was to lead the left in a holding action while Alexander led the right in striking a battle-winning blow. Across the field, Darius deployed the bulk of his infantry in a long line, with his cavalry to the front.

In the center, he surrounded himself with his best cavalry along with the famed Immortals. Having chosen the ground to facilitate the use of his scythed chariots, he ordered these units placed at the front of the army. Command of the left flank was given to Bessus, while the right was assigned to Mazaeus. Due to the size of the Persian army, Alexander anticipated that Darius would be able to flank his men as they advanced. To counter this, orders were issued that the second Macedonian line should counter any flanking units as the situation dictated.

The Battle of Gaugamela

With his men in place, Alexander ordered an advance on the Persian line with his men moving obliquely to the right as they marched forward. As the Macedonians neared the enemy, he began extending his right with the goal of drawing the Persian cavalry in that direction and creating a gap between them and Darius' center. With the enemy bearing down, Darius attacked with his chariots. These raced forward but were defeated by Macedonian javelins, archers, and new infantry tactics designed to lessen their impact. The Persian elephants also had little effect as the massive animals moved to avoid the enemy spears.

As the lead phalanx engaged the Persian infantry, Alexander focused his attention on the far right. Here he began pulling men from his rearguard to continue the fight on the flank, while he disengaged his Companions and gathered other units to strike Darius' position. Advancing with his men forming a wedge, Alexander angled left toward the flank of Darius' center. Supported by peltasts (light infantry with slings and bows) which kept the Persian cavalry at bay, Alexander's cavalry rode down on the Persian line as a gap opened between Darius and Bessus' men.

Striking through the gap, the Macedonians shattered Darius' royal guard and adjacent formations. With the troops in the immediate area retreating, Darius fled the field and was followed by the bulk of his army. Cut off on the Persian left, Bessus began withdrawing with his men. With Darius fleeing before him, Alexander was prevented from pursuing due to desperate messages for aid from Parmenion. Under heavy pressure from Mazaeus, Parmenion's right had become separated from the rest of the Macedonian army. Exploiting this gap, Persian cavalry units passed through the Macedonian line.

Fortunately for Parmenion, these forces elected to continue on to loot the Macedonian camp rather than attack his rear. While Alexander circled back to aid the Macedonian left, Parmenion turned the tide and succeeded in driving back Mazaeus' men who fled the field. He also was able to direct troops to clear the Persian cavalry from the rear.

Aftermath of Gaugamela

As with most battles from this period, casualties for Gaugamela are not known with any certainty though sources indicate that Macedonian losses may have been around 4,000 while Persian losses may have been as high as 47,000. In the wake of the fighting, Alexander pursued Darius while Parmenion rounded up the riches of the Persian baggage train. Darius succeeded in escaping to Ecbatana and Alexander turned south capturing Babylon, Susa, and the Persian capital of Persepolis. Within a year, the Persians turned on Darius and conspirators led by Bessus killed him. With Darius' death, Alexander considered himself the rightful ruler of the Persian Empire and began campaigning to eliminate the threat posed by Bessus.

Source :HistoryNet- Battle of Gaugamela