THE CITY OF GERRHA ~ SAUDI ARABIA

Gerrha ( Greek: Γέρρα) was an ancient and renowned city within Eastern Arabia, on the west side of the Persian Gulf. Known from Greek sources, it has been identified with a few candidate archaeological sites in Eastern Arabia, with the main candidates being Hagar (modern-day Hofuf) and Thaj.

In the aftermath of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the subsequent Seleucid Empire in the region, Gerrha became a site of central importance in the Hellenistic world and the major site of trading in the Persian Gulf. It was a major source of Arabian aromatics and for the transport of goods from India.

Gerrha was located at or near the Persian Gulf, possessing a port and an inland town. A detailed description of the city was offered by the geographer Strabo:

'After sailing along the [east] coast of Arabia [from the outlet of the Euphrates] for a distance of 2400 stadia [c.380 km] one comes to Gerrha, a city situated on a deep gulf. It is inhabited by Chaldaeans, exiles from Babylon. The soil contains salt and the people live in houses made of salt; and since flakes of salt continually scale off, owing to the scorching heat of the rays of the sun, and fall away, the people frequently sprinkle the houses with water and thus keep the walls firm. The city is 200 stadia [c.32 km] distant from the sea; and the Gerrhaeans traffic by land, for the most part, in the Arabian merchandise and aromatics' . However, Aristobulus says that the Gerrhaeans import most of their cargoes on rafts to Babylonia, and thence sail up the Euphrates with them, and then convey them by land to all parts of the country.

Location and etymology

To the ancient Greeks, Eastern Arabia (now al-Ahsa Governorate) was known as Gerrha after its capital city. Gerrha was a Greek adaptation of the ancient name; it is now Hofuf, the name of the largest city of Bahrayn or al-Ḥasāʾ, pre-modern names for Eastern Arabia, which now encompass the Eastern Province and al-Aḥsāʾ Governorate of Saudi Arabia. Bahrayn was also known as Hagar or Gerrha in the Hellenistic period. Other English spellings are Hajar Hufuf and Hajar Hasa' Hajarah.

The name Hagar is not to be confused with Hegra near the Red Sea. Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani says the etymology of Hajar means ‘large village’ in the Himyaritic language.

The researcher Abdulkhaliq Al Janbi argued in his book that Gerrha was most likely the ancient city of Hajar, located in modern-day Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia.Al-Janbi's theory is the most widely accepted one by modern scholars, although there are some difficulties with this argument, given that the al-Ahsa Oasis is 60 kilometres (37 mi) inland and thus less likely to be the starting point for a trade route, making a location within the archipelago of islands comprising Bahrain, particularly the main island of Bahrain itself, another possibility.

Another location suggested as Gerrha is Thāj, an archaeological site and ancient town located west of Jubail in Eastern Province, located approximately 95 km from the coast of the Persian Gulf.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT COIN ~ SAUDI ARABIA

 

Eastern Arabia. Gerrha. 230-220 BCE.

The makers of this coin were mitating the coin types of Alexander the Great . Head of young Herakles , wearing lion skin / Shams seated l. on throne holding eagle and scepter, ΣΒΥ (Shams )in South Arabian script, and  Greek script ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ   (of king  Alexander ).

This rare tetradrachm is one of the earliest Arabian coin issues struck by the caravan city of Gerrha in what is now Saudi Arabia. Exposure of the rulers and people of Gerrha to the international trade coinage of Alexander the Great led to the adoption and reinterpretation of his Herakles and Zeus types for themselves. Here, the God on the reverse is clean shaven and youthful, reflecting contemporary Arab fashion rather than Greek tradition, and is clearly identified by the South Arabian legend as the Arab god Shams, rather than Greek Zeus. Shams was a sun god derived from the Mesopotamian god Shamash. In Eastern Arabia Shams was regularly understood as a young male deity, following old Mesopotamian custom, while in the south Shams was understood to be female. The tetradrachm reflects the multicultural character of Arabia in the third century BCE, standing as it did at the crossroads of the Seleucid Empire that succeeded the vast Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great and Mesopotamia, whose civilization was already very old when Alexander arrived, as well as the ability and willingness of the ancient Arabs to adapt features of these foreign cultures for their own use. Even the inscription naming Shams is borrowed in that it is a South Arabian script used by Eastern Arabs who more commonly wrote in Aramaic. As such, the use of this script as well as the reinterpretation of Zeus as Shams places a strongly Arab stamp onto an otherwise ubiquitous Greek coin type. 

ARABIA , GREECE AND BYZANTIUM ~ FREE BOOK PDF

A book about the cultural contacts tthroughout ancient and medieval times, available in PDF. Click on the following link.

https://www.mfa.gr/missionsabroad/images/stories/missions/saudi-arabia/docs/Arabia_Greece_and_Byzantium_en.pdf

GRECO~ARABIAN KINGDOM

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom, a period of dynamic interaction between Greek and Arabian cultures, emerged in the ancient Arabian Peninsula during a pivotal time in the region’s history. Spanning from 298 BCE to 27 BCE, this kingdom represented a unique fusion of Hellenistic influence, introduced after the conquest of Alexander the Great, and the local Arabian traditions. This paper explores the political, cultural, and military significance of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom, as well as its relationship with neighboring empires and its eventual decline.

The Origins of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom’s formation can be traced back to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE. His vast empire fragmented, and control over the Arabian Peninsula shifted between the Seleucid Empire, which ruled much of the Near East, and local Arabian dynasties. One such local dynasty was that of the Nabataeans, a powerful people in the northern Arabian Peninsula. In 298 BCE, as Seleucid control waned and the Nabataean Kingdom gained strength, the Greco-Arabian Kingdom came into being.

Initially, the Nabataeans maintained their political independence under the leadership of King Aretas I. His kingdom was a key player in the region, with Petra, the capital, becoming a thriving trade hub connecting the Mediterranean world with Arabia, India, and Africa. The Seleucid Empire’s weakening influence in the region allowed for the growth of such kingdoms, which became increasingly autonomous.

Political and Cultural Developments

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom represented a remarkable blend of Greek and Arabian cultures. The Greek influence, particularly from the Seleucid Empire, brought with it Hellenistic art, architecture, and governance. Greek was used as the language of diplomacy and administration, while Greek-influenced urban planning and city-building projects flourished in regions such as Petra and other parts of modern-day Jordan.

However, this kingdom also preserved many aspects of traditional Arabian culture, including its tribal social structure, religious practices, and nomadic traditions. The kingdom's leaders, who were of Arabian descent, skillfully integrated these two worlds, promoting a hybrid culture that was neither fully Greek nor fully Arabian.

One of the most remarkable aspects of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom was its role in trade. Positioned along the lucrative incense routes, it was strategically important for controlling trade between the Mediterranean and the Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom played a pivotal role in the export of frankincense, myrrh, and other valuable commodities, which were highly sought after by the ancient world.

The Military and Strategic Importance

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom’s military was another key factor in its success. Although not as formidable as the armies of the Ptolemies or Seleucids, the Nabataeans had a unique military advantage. Their knowledge of the desert and ability to control key trade routes made them formidable adversaries. Their reliance on cavalry and archers, combined with guerrilla tactics, allowed them to hold their ground against larger, more powerful foes.

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom's control over trade routes also made it a significant player in the geopolitics of the time. Both the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire had an interest in controlling the Arabian trade routes. However, the Nabataeans skillfully navigated their relationships with both powers, maintaining their independence and flourishing as a regional power.

Decline and Legacy

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom began to decline in the 1st century BCE, as Roman influence expanded in the region. In 64 BCE, the Roman general Pompey conquered the Nabataean Kingdom, marking the end of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom as an independent entity. Although the Kingdom was absorbed into the Roman Empire, the legacy of the Greco-Arabian Kingdom persisted. The cultural and architectural contributions of the kingdom continued to influence the region, with Petra remaining an iconic symbol of its unique heritage.

The Nabataean Kingdom’s integration into the Roman Empire also allowed for the continued prosperity of its trade routes, which remained vital for Roman commerce.

Conclusion

The Greco-Arabian Kingdom, which lasted from 298 BCE to 27 BCE, was a remarkable fusion of Greek and Arabian cultures. It was a kingdom that thrived due to its strategic location, rich trade routes, and ability to blend Hellenistic and Arabian traditions. While its political independence was eventually absorbed by the expanding Roman Empire, its cultural legacy endures, particularly in its architectural achievements such as Petra. The Greco-Arabian Kingdom is a testament to the power of cultural syncretism and the ability of smaller kingdoms to influence the larger geopolitical stage.

References

Bowersock, G. W. (1983). Roman Arabia. Harvard University Press.

Krencker, R. (1922). Petra: A Study in Greco-Roman Art and Architecture. Journal of the British School at Rome, 18(2), 125-147.

Whitcomb, D. (2004). The Nabataean World: Architecture and Culture in the Greco-Roman Period. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 63(4), 245-267.

Schick, T. (2003). Petra: The Archaeology of the Nabataean Kingdom. Oxford University Press.

THE HELLENISTIC GULF ~ GREEK NAVAL PRESENCE IN MESOPOTAMIA AND THE GULF ~ FREE BOOK PDF

A book on the history of  Greeks  in the Gulf

For those who wish to read it, it's available here in pdf form for free.

 Click on this link  https://www.academia.edu/28384661/The_Hellenistic_Gulf

UNANI TIBB ~ ANCIENT GREEK MEDICINE IN CENTRAL ASIA

Greco-Arabic Medicine

     Unani is the Arabic word for Ionian, or Greek.  Greece's Islamic neighbors call Greece Yunanistan, or the Land of the Unanis. 

     While Western Europe was in the Dark Ages, Greek Medicine and other branches of classical science and learning found a safe haven in Islamic lands.  But Greek Medicine didn't remain static or unchanging; it continued to grow and evelve as Muslim scholars and physicians continued to make important discoveries and contributions of their own. 

     In the process, Greek Medicine was "Islamicized" into Unani-Tibb, or Greco-Arabic Medicine.  This transformation proved that Greek Medicine was flexible, resilient and adaptable enough to absorb and incorporate new developments and influences. 

     Within a few short centuries after its birth, the Islamic world had expanded to stretch from the Atlantic ocean in the west to the Indian ocean in the east, from Moorish Spain to the plains of Hindustan.  Everywhere the Muslims went, their Unani physicians went with them, adapting themselves to the local conditions and resources.  In the words of Unani medical historians, Unani Tibb enriched itself by imbibing new medicines, techniques and treatments from the various cultures and medical systems with which it came into contact, which included Indian Ayurveda and Oriental Medicine.

     Around the time of the Crusades, the Islamic world produced a few very prominent and influential physicians and medical scholars.  Their names were Latinized, and their medical treatises were imported into Europe and translated into Latin, to serve as texts and reference manuals in the medical schools that were just starting to spring up in Medieval Europe. 

     Ibn Rushd, or Averroes (1120 - 1198) was a physician and Islamic scholar and philosopher in Moorish Spain.  He wrote a five volume treatise on medicine called Al-Culliyat (The Fundamentals), or Colliget. 

     Al-Razi, or Rhazes (865 - 924) was a Persian physician, chemist and alchemist.  He wrote a vast medical encyclopedia called Continens, with many excerpts from Hindu and Greek medical sources.

However, the greatest of these was undoubtedly Hakim Ibn Sina, or Avicenna.  He wrote a five volume treatise called The Canon of Medicine, which became a standard textbook in European medical schools.  Today, it serves as the basic handbook for all practitioners of Unani Medicine.

     Unani Medicine found fertile soil in India.  The Delhi Sultanate and later the Moghul emperors were great patrons of medicine.  Many eminent physicians from Persia and Central Asia came to India not only to seek fame and fortune, but also to find a safe haven from the wars and strife devastating their homelands. 

   

  Under British rule, all forms of healing except conventional allopathic medicine were discouraged.  But Unani Medicine survived, due to its popularity with the masses, and the safe, gentle yet effective nature of its treatments. 

     Hakim Ajmal Khan (1864 - 1927) was an Unani physician, and also an Indian patriot and freedom fighter in the struggle for independence.  He was also a great advocate and champion of the indigenous systems of Ayurvedic and Unani Medicine, and pioneered scientific research into their treatments.

     Today, the Indian government supports and subsidizes both Ayurvedic and Unani medical colleges and hospitals.  But whereas Ayurveda has enjoyed a phenomenal surge in popularity, Unani Medicine still lags behind in recognition, perhaps due to its minority Islamic associations.

http://www.greekmedicine.net/history/Unani_Medicine.html

THE SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION IN ASIA

The ancient Macedonians followed Alexander all the way to India and assisted him to build his empire which survived -divided into smaller ones- for three centuries after his death (in 323 B.C.E) These three post-Alexander centuries are called by scholars as the German Droysen, Hellenistic Era, to distinguish it from the Greek classical period.

Excavations of archeological sites in Asia, from Syria all the way to Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and India, bring recently to light the post-Alexander world. As reported by ancient historians and proved now by the archeologists, the Hellenistic era is characterized by “the spread of the Greek civilization to the Orient”, as Tarn said, achieved by the Macedonian successors of Alexander and resulting from two main factors: the many Greek cities built by Alexander and his successors and the ecumenism of the Greek language. What was the force that propelled it?

The excavations also demonstrate the influence of the Greek culture on the arts and civilizations of Asia and vice versa.

The findings reveal also that the elements of the Greek civilization were voluntarily adopted by the local people for many centuries after the Greeks left Asia, as for example the Kushan art and especially the Gandhara art, named by the French specialists, Graeco-Buddhist.

After many years of excavations and studies, only recently, the last 15 years, have we begun to realize how historically important are the archeological findings in Asia, especially those done by the French archeologists, who keep excavating systematically since the beginning of 1900. Today those who are mostly known are Professors Paul Bernard, Pierre Leriche, Osmund Bopearachchi, Jean Yves Empereur, Edward Rtveladze and several others of different countries, Mrs. Souvaltzi among them, who operate excavations in Asia and Egypt.

The seed of Hellenic civilization brought about a sort of renaissance in Asia that changed the cultural identity of the Asian world. The archeologists have lightened up the persistent use of the Greek language in Asia that made the civilization universal for many centuries (ten in the Middle East), until Islam arrived and beyond.

Professor Mostafa El-Abbadi of the University of Alexandria writes in his book “The Ancient Library of Alexandria” (UNESCO, Paris 1992) that more than a century after the Arab conquest, Damascus and Alexandria continued to use the Greek as the official state language (from 331 B.C. to 750 A.D.). This remarkable persistence was mainly due to the post-Alexander Macedonian kings and little reference is made to this.

According to Plutarch, Alexander built seventy cities named “Alexandria”,  nine of which were in Bactria (today’s Afghanistan, south Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan) at the East end of his kingdom. Originally they were built as fortresses, but some of them were developed later as great commercial and cultural centers spreading the Greek civilization to the peoples of Asia. Many more cities were built later by King Seleucus 1st the Nikator,  Alexander’s general who established the Seleucid Empire in Asia after Alexander’s death, and by another general, Ptolemy and his heirs in his kingdom in Egypt (total, about 200 Greek cities). 

Some of them are known well, a few only by name, and others have been excavated without the archeologists knowing their names.

Certain cities became large commercial and cultural centers in the long East-West routes in Asia, later known as the Silk Road, and greatly affected their surrounding territories. The many stretched routes, created to facilitate communications between cities , increased the commercial and cultural exchanges between various people from the Mediterranean to India, making the Greek language a necessary tool of communication among people and a channel for spreading the Greek civilization.

Other Greek settlers migrated to the new cities, bringing with them knowledge, new ways of life and Greek art. Many indigenous people who were Hellenized also contributed to the perpetuation of the Greek culture. A good example is the architect Apollodor from Damascus who built the Rome’s Forum. Other examples of Greek influence on local cities are the Arab city of Petra with Greek architecture, the Aramaic city of Palmyra of the Roman period, with Greek architecture and Greek official language.

The most important characteristic of the Greek civilization in Asia, which was disseminated by the Hellenistic cities, was the fact that it did not replace or abolish the local civilizations. Preserving their own culture, the people of the Orient adopted the Greek civilization to a degree that was desirable or necessary for their intellectual or commercial exchanges. The presence of large theaters excavated in the Hellenistic and Greco-Roman cities, for instance,  the theater in Gerasa  show that the local people understood Greek and the Greek plays since there were no translations at those times.

Also, many local cities had adopted Greek as their official written language. The universality of the Greek language also helped the spread of Christianity later.

The best known Greek cities in the Middle East are: Alexandria of Egypt, rich capital of the Ptolemy’s kingdom (the most important commercial and cultural center of the Hellenic world, where Alexander was buried, as Dr. Souvaltzi developed and where the two cultures, the Greek and the Egyptian merged. Other important Greek cities are Ephesus, Antioch (the “Paris” of the Middle East according to Gibbon, both cities rich, glamorous and illuminated at night), Dion, Pella, Edessa, Veria, Laodiceia, Doura-Europos, Philippoupolis (today Aman), Apamea, Chalkis, Herakleia etc. Many of them have names of cities in Macedonia, or of other Greek cities, of Greek Gods or of king’s family. The Greek language in these cities was used until the arrival of Islam and beyond.

The Greek presence was so strong, especially in Syria -where so many Hellenistic cities had been built-that Strabon calls it “small Macedonia” in his description, as Professor Leriche mentioned. Some of these cities are excavated by him personally.

During the Roman period that followed the Hellenistic Era, the cities continued to maintain their Hellenistic identity, some of them became rich, and exhibited grandiose architecture with graceful Corinthian pillars, wide streets and beautiful mosaics.

The second great center of Hellenistic civilization was Bactria, in Central Asia. The Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms developed there, with forty Greek kings ruling the region in succession, as far deep inside India, for three centuries. The Greek Kings  established some Greek cities and introduced the Greek coins in these areas (some of the attic type) with Greek Gods on the reverse.

Thousands of coins were discovered showing the Greek cultural influence, the high level of civilization, the wealth of the area and the Hellenic influence on the cultural and economic life of the local people, as Professor Bopearachchi reported .

Ai Khanum in North Afghanistan, near the Tajikistan border, is the only Hellenistic city excavated almost entirely, by the French archeological expedition, under the supervision of the Academician, Professor Paul Bernard.It is an impressive and very characteristic city that furnished archaeological precious information relative to the Oriental Hellenistic cities. 

Built on the strategic passage to Tatzikistan, Ai Khanum is an example of genuine, solid Hellenistic city with Greek architecture and institutions, a huge majestic structure with the characteristic central avenue, an Acropolis, Temple of Zeus, Palace, Theatre, Gymnasium dedicated to Hercules, Library, public fountains, statues, Greek pillars, and philosophical epigrams carved on the city’s monuments, based on Delphic Maxims. The city cleverly blended the local elements with the Hellenic civilization.

The Kushan Empire of local people, who replaced later the Greco-Bactrian kingdoms in the region, adopted the Greek alphabet and elements of the Greek art and themes.

Also, the Greco-Buddhist Art of Gandhara, showing statues of Buddha with the face of Apollo, and Hercules and Alexander on his sides . All of these arts prove the preference of the local artists for  the Hellenistic civilization. Unfortunately, the Ai Khanum archeological site, like so many other sites and museums, has been plundered for many years.

The grand era in Asia and Egypt, named Hellenistic Era or Hellenism of the Orient as French Professor Sclumberger called it, with its special civilization, was created by the power, resiliency, and spirit of the Hellenic civilization that was easily and peacefully amalgamated with the Asian and Egyptian ones. A remarkable result of this amalgamation was a new art, the Hellenistic Art whose creation was the Greco-Buddhist Art of Gandhara, expressing the Buddhist theme with Hellenic style.

The spread of the Greek civilization in the Orient by the Macedonians demonstrates their Greek cultural identity, the proof of which lies in the excavated cities in Asia and also in the strong memories of Alexander the Greek and the Greek civilization, which are still alive in Central Asia, especially among people in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Uzbekistan.

Some populations in the region still wear the Kausia, the Macedonian hat, revere Greece and the Greek culture and claim they are of Alexander’s descent.! Even Marco Polo reports it in his book in 1200.

The Hellenistic Era would not have occurred had not been for the contribution of Alexander’s Macedonians, who were Greeks. The Seleucids, the Ptolemies have worked to establish it. The force that propelled it was Hellenism, a concept expressed by Droysen, wrapped within a single word: Hellenismus. If Alexander and his Macedonians were not possessed by the power of Greek pride, there would have been no Hellenistic Era, no matter how many experts from other Greek cities-states followed the Macedonians to the depths of Asia.

 Despite the fighting among the post-Alexander kingdoms, their solid Hellenism remained intact. There was not a single voice in or for any other language than Greek. The panhellenic spirit followed the Macedonians to the Orient.  In Ai Khanum they lived with philosophical Delphic maxims while in Luxor in Egypt they carved their names on the columns, all of them in Greek.

Some people in Central Asia still think of Alexander the Greek and his Greeks from Macedonia who brought to them the Hellenic civilization. Some towns in Uzbekistan add the name Iskenderia (Alexandria) to their own (Odil Saidikramov, “Uzbekistan”), proud of having been on Alexander’s way to India and of having received elements of the Greek culture which they still greatly respect. They say Hair for hello, the Greek word Haire, among many others used in these regions.

In Asia, the Greek civilization spread by the Greeks enriched and influenced the local cultures and finally blended with them. It is a great achievement and besides, it proves the Greek cultural identity of the ancient Macedonians.

 Edited from the paper of Dr. Potitsa Grigoratou – Parnassos  from the Proceedings of the International Conference “Hellenistic Culture in the East”

SOURCE elinepa.org

FAILAKA ~ IKAROS ~ THE ISLAND OF KUWAIT WITH A GREEK NAME

 

The history of one island off the coast of Kuwait dates back more than 3,500 years. The island of Fylakio, Greek for outpost, was a coveted prize of the world’s most ancient and famous civilizations.

Failaka’s name is derived from the Greek word for outpost. But Alexander the Great, according to later classical authors such as Strabo and Arrian, gave Failaka the name Ikaros, since it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape. French archaeologists working on the island in recent years have found several stone inscriptions dating to the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE mentioning the name Ikaros, as well as architecture and artifacts that reveal a bustling community with international ties during that period. The island’s accessible fresh water, easily defended coastline, and strategic location also attracted the attention of Alexander’s successors, who vied among themselves for control of regional trade routes. Antiochus I, who ruled the Seleucid Empire in the third century BCE, built a 60-foot-square fort around a well on Failaka. Inside the fortress compound, one small, elegant temple has Ionic columns and a plan that is quintessentially Greek, including an east-facing altar. This was no simple import, however, but a fascinating amalgamation of designs. The column bases, for example, are of the Persian Achaemenid style, similar to those in the capital, Persepolis, burned by Alexander’s troops in the 4th century BCE.

 According to Mathilde Gelin from the French Institute of the Near East in Damascus, who is currently working at the site, this unusual pairing reflects a rare fusion of Greek and Eastern cultures. The sturdy fort eventually grew into a bustling port town, with other temples, houses, and larger fortifications, until its eventual abandonment by the first century BCE. Gelin hopes the current excavations will reveal what role the fort and settlement played in both island life and that of the wider region during a time of remarkable cultural mixing.

The history of Failaka was mentioned as far back as Strabo’s Geography in 25 CE and Arrian’s Anabasis but the Greeks were not the first people to discover it. There is evidence – though contested – that Bahrain’s ancient civilization of Dilmun had a lot to do with Failaka before the Greeks. Also, when the Greeks reached the Island, there was already a native speaking Aramaic population.

During the Hellenistic era, there was a temple dedicated to Artemis on the island; the wild animals of the island were dedicated to the Goddess with a decree for their protection. Strabo wrote that there was a temple of Apollo and an oracle of Artemis  Tauropolus(μαντεῖον Ταυροπόλου). The island is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium and Ptolemaeus.

Several expeditions visited to conduct archaeological work on Failaka. The first expedition was by the Danish in 1970, then the French in 1983. In 2010 an Italian team, led by Associate Professor of Classical Archaeology at University of Perugia, Gian Luca Grassigli, landed at Failaka as well. This team excavated several objects, including porcelain, glass, bronze objects, and pottery.

One of the goals of these expeditions was to finally figure out if Failaka was the same Ikaros mentioned in ancient sources. In 1970, this speculation was put to rest when an inscription of 44 lines was discovered by the Danish expedition. From then on, there has never been so much as a fleeting doubt that the Ikaros mentioned in ancient sources was and still is modern Failaka.

It should also be noted  that both Failaka in the Persian Gulf and Icarus in the Aegean Sea housed bull cults would have made the identification all the more tempting.

During the Hellenistic era, there was a temple dedicated to Artemis on the island; the wild animals of the island were dedicated to the Goddess with a decree for their protection. Strabo wrote that there was a temple of Apollo and an oracle of Artemis  Tauropolus(μαντεῖον Ταυροπόλου). The island is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium and Ptolemaeus.

Edited from  archaeology.org, Wikipedia

THE PLAN OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO CONQUER ARABIA

In 324 BCE, Alexander the Great sent naval expeditions to make a survey of Arabia in preparation for an invasion he was planning.  There were meetings with the admiral of his fleet, Nearchus, whose newly-restored fleet was ready for the next great campaign in Arabia. Alexander ordered dredging around Babylon to build a proper harbor, sufficient to supply 1,000 warships with maintenance facilities and docks. His days were filled with business, his nights in poring over maps and descriptions of unknown islands, far lands, navigational problems, the advice of subordinates, all in preparation for his conquest of Arabia.

Although his death in 323 B.C.E. stopped the invasion, the men whom Alexander sent succeeded in providing the Greeks with detailed information about Arabia.  Some of the expedition leaders produced surveys which have come down to us through the Greek historians and geographers. From Arrian’s,Anabasis, we know that Alexander built a large harbor at Babylon as part of his preparation for conquering Arabia. Arrian wrote:

“Near Babylon, he constructed a harbor by excavation l enough to afford anchorage for 1,000 ships of war; and adjoining the harbor he built dockyards. Miccalus the Clazomenian was dispatched to Phoenicia and Syria with 500 talents to enlist some men and purchase others who were experienced in nautical affairs… He made these preparations for the fleet to attack the main body of the Arab.”  

Arrian explained that Alexander planned to occupy Arabia:

“…under the pretext that they were the only barbarians of this region who had not sent an embassy to him or done anything else becoming their position and showing respect to him. But the truth was, as it seems to me, that Alexander was insatiably ambitious of acquiring fresh territory.”

Arrian cited other reasons that Alexander planned to occupy Arabia: its fertility and the growth of certain plants there. Arrian wrote:

“The fertility of the land was a secret inducement to him to invade it. He had heard that the people obtained cassia from the lakes and myrrh and frankincense from the trees, that cinnamon was cut from the shrubs, and that the meadows produced spikenard without any cultivation.” 

Alexander sent three naval expeditions from Babylon. The first was under Archias, who went as far as the island of Tylus (Bahrain). Aristobulus’ account of the expedition contains a description of the sacred island of Icaros (modern-day Falaika, 20 km off the coast of Kuwait) and also informs Arrian’s extensive description of the southern shores of the Persian Gulf. Archias was followed by Androsthenes of Thasos who reached the Straits of Hormuz in 423 BCE. Androsthenes wrote a book describing his voyage. The book is lost, but his work was a subject of study by the later Greek historians and geographers.

The third naval expedition Alexander sent was under Hieron of Soli. Arrian wrote:

“Hieron of Soli, the pilot, also received a triacontor [30-oared ship] from Alexander and advanced farthest of those whom he had despatched to this region; for he had received instructions to sail round the whole Arabian peninsula as far as the Arabian Gulf near Egypt over against Heroopolis. Though he had sailed round the greater part of Arabia, Hieron did not dare go further, but turned back to Babylon.”

Hieron’s sailing “round the greater part of Arabia” means that he sailed around western Arabia. But he turned back. We suppose the reason Hieron turned back before reaching the Egyptian Gulf opposite to Heroopolis was the arid tract of central western Arabia. We can understand this from another document in which Arrian wrote about a voyage of Nearchus, who was instructed “to find out what men inhabit it, to discover the harbors and rivers in it, to ascertain the customs of the people, and to see if any of the country was fertile and if any was sterile. This was why Alexander’s naval expedition returned in safety; for if it had sailed beyond the deserts of Arabia, it would not have returned in safety. This is said also to have been the reason that Hieron turned back.”

Arrian tells us that the Greek explorers were explicitly instructed to explore and learn about the inhabitants, their customs, the fertility of the lands, etc. They had to give a complete picture. Sailing around Arabia allowed them to gather in-depth information about the lands and the cities that existed in their day. The information they gathered became an important resource for the later Greek explorers of Arabia.

An important historical note: The circadian process was first described by one of Alexander’s sea captains, Androsthenes, who observed the diurnal leaf movements of a tamarind tree. The circadian rhythm is a roughly 24 hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings. Circadian rhythms are important in determining the sleeping and feeding patterns of all animals, including human beings. There are clear patterns of brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.

Edited from historyofmacedonia.wordpress