ORPHIC HYMN TO ARES

The following is a video with the Orphic Hymn to Ares, the Greek God of War. The translation is by Thomas Taylor (1792 ). Some of the English words have been written in contemporary spelling, to facilitate reading. Moreover, the Greek name of the God is used here,as in the original Orphic Hymn. Below the video, there is the Hymn in Ancient Greek.

Magnanimous, unconquered, boisterous Ares, in darts rejoicing, and in bloody wars; fierce and untamed, whose mighty power can make the strongest walls from their foundations shake: mortal-destroying King, defiled with gore, pleased with war's dreadful and tumultuous roar. Thee human blood, and swords, and spears delight, and the dire ruin of mad savage fight. Stay furious contests, and avenging strife, whose works with woe embitter human life; to lovely Kyrpis [Aphrodite] and to Lyaios [Dionysos] yield, for arms exchange the labours of the field; encourage peace, to gentle works inclined, and give abundance, with benignant mind."

Ἆρες ὑπερμενέτα, βρισάρματε, χρυσεοπήληξ, ὀβριμόθυμε, φέρασπι, πολισσόε, χαλκοκορυστά, καρτερόχειρ, ἀμόγητε, δορυσθενές, ἕρκος Ὀλύμπου, Νίκης εὐπολέμοιο πάτερ, συναρωγὲ Θέμιστος, ἀντιβίοισι τύραννε, δικαιοτάτων ἀγὲ φωτῶν, ἠνορέης σκηπτοῦχε, πυραυγέα κύκλον ἑλίσσων αἰθέρος ἑπταπόροις ἐνὶ τείρεσιν ἔνθα σε πῶλοι ζαφλεγέες τριτάτης ὑπὲρ ἄντυγος αἰὲν ἔχουσι· κλῦθι βροτῶν ἐπίκουρε, δοτὴρ εὐθαλέος ἥβης, πρηῢ καταστίλβων σέλας ὑψόθεν ἐς βιότητα ἡμετέρην καὶ κάρτος ἀρήϊον, ὥς κε δυναίμην σεύασθαι κακότητα πικρὴν ἀπ᾽ ἐμοῖο καρήνου, καὶ ψυχῆς ἀπατηλὸν ὑπογνάμψαι φρεσὶν ὁρμὴν θυμοῦ τ᾽ αὖ μένος ὀξὺ κατισχέμεν ὅς μ᾽ ἐρέθῃσι φυλόπιδος κρυερῆς ἐπιβαινέμεν· ἀλλὰ σὺ θάρσος δὸς μάκαρ, εἰρήνης τε μένειν ἐν ἀπήμοσι θεσμοῖς δυσμενέων προφυγόντα μόθον κῆράς τε βιαίους.

NEREUS ~ THE ELDER GOD OF THE SEA

Nereus,  (Ancient Greek: Νηρεύς) is the eldest son of Pontus (the Sea) and Gaia (the Earth). He and Doris are the parents of the Nereids and Nerites, with whom Nereus lives in the Aegean.
In Ancient Greece , He is described the 'Old Man of the Sea'. In Aelian's natural history, written in the early 3rd century CE,Nereus is mentioned as the father of a watery consort of Aphrodite, named Nerites, who was transformed into "a shellfish with a spiral shell, small in size but of unsurpassing beauty." Another well-known daughter of Nereus is Thetis, the Nereid mother of the Greek Hero Achilles. Amphitrite, the consort of Poseidon is also one of His children.

Like Proteus, Nereus can shapeshift and is a powerful oracle. He helped heroes such as Heracles, who managed to overpowerhim as He transformed constantly. 

During the course of the 5th century BCE, Nereus was gradually replaced by Triton, who does not appear in Homer, in the imagery of the struggle between Heracles and the sea-God who had to be restrained in order to deliver his information that was employed by the vase-painters, independent of any literary testimony.

In a late appearance, according to a fragmentary papyrus, Alexander the Great paused at the Syrian seashore before the climacteric battle of Issus (333 BCE), and prayed, "calling on Thetis, Nereus and the Nereids, Nymphs of the sea, and invoking Poseidon the Sea-God, for whom he ordered a four-horse chariot to be cast into the waves."

Nereus is a benevolent Sea-God, known for His kind nature and the respect He shows for Divine Order. He is also known for his truthfulness and virtue.

The Attic vase-painters showed the draped torso of Nereus issuing from a long coiling scaly fishlike tail. Bearded Nereus generally wields a staff of authority. He was also shown in scenes depicting the flight of the Nereides, as Peleus wrestled their sister Thetis.

In general, Nereus and His family represent everything beautiful and positive within the marine environment; the aspect of the sea which provides mortals with nourishment and favourable conditions for expeditions and commerce.

Edited from : Wikipedia

PLEIADES ~ THE CELESTIAL SISTERS

In Greek Religion, the Pleiades are the seven daughters of the Titan Atlas and the Nymph Pleione. They were in the service of Goddess Artemis. The most famous of the Seven is Maia, who is the mother of God Hermes, after her union with Zeus. Her sisters' names are : Electra, Taygete, Alcyone,Celaeno,Sterope and Merope. Each of them is the Divine ancestor of many Greek Kings and heroes.

The Seven Sisters helped in the upbringing of the infant God Dionysos, along with their other sisters, the Yades. 

There are many stories about how the Pleiades were transformed into the well-known constellation. The most dominant story is that they committed suicide out of their grief for Their father's eternal punishment to carry the world on His shoulders. Zeus, however, took pity on them and transformed them into stars. Also, it has been told that the Sisters ,along with their mother, were pursued by the hunter Orion; Zeus transformed them into stars to help them escape the relentless pursuit.

STRATONICE OF SYRIA

Stratonice (Greek: Στρατoνίκη) of Syria was the daughter of king Demetrius Poliorcetes and Phila, the daughter of Antipater. In 300 BCE, when she was probably about 17 years old, her hand was solicited by Seleucus, king of Syria, and she was conducted by her father Demetrius to Rhosus, on the Pierian coast in Macedonia, where her nuptials were celebrated with the utmost magnificence. Despite their age difference, Stratonike seems to have had a harmonious relationship with her husband, and she bore him a daughter,called Phila.

However, an uncomfortable situation arose within the royal family. Antiochus, Seleucus' son from Apama, had fallen deeply in love with Stratonice. His feelings were so strong,that his health had begun to decline badly. In order to protect his son's life, Seleucus gave up Stratonice in marriage to the young Prince in 294 BCE. At the same time, he made Antiochus King of the Eastern provinces. This somewhat awkward union between Stratonice and Antiochus seems to have been prosperous; however, we find little information about the Queen herself after that.The evidence available informs us that she had five children with Antiochus and that the city of Stratonikeia in Caria was named after her by Antiochus. 

SOURCE :https://wiki.dbpedia.org/about

TRITON ~ THE SON OF GOD POSEIDON

In Greek Religion, Triton is one of the sons of God Poseidon and his consort Amphitrite. He lives in a golden underwater palace, along with His parents and siblings. Triton is depicted as a human with a fishtail from the waist below.

Triton is a member of Poseidon's marine entourage. His trademark is a large conch shell,which He uses as a trumpet. Apart from escorting His Father, Triton is often seen accompanying other Gods, such as Zeus and Aphrodite. He also escorted Leto to the island of Delos, where She was able to give birth to Apollo and Artemis.
Triton is also known to help mortals in difficult times, as He did during the campaign of the Argonauts. When they found themselves stranded in lake Tritonis in Libya, Triton Himself carried the ship towards the open sea. Even though He is a marine deity, Triton has also been associated with lakes and and rivers- and the Argonaut story is another indication of this association. 

Just like the sea in which He Dwells, Triton can be both a benevolent God and a raw, violent force. He is usually depicted joyous and playful, filled with erotic desires towards the Nymphs of the Sea- yet, He can easily command the waves to rise and destroy, through His conch-shell trumpet.

Over time, the name Triton covered an entire category of sea creatures very similar to mermaids- both male and female, who are often seen escorting Poseidon and other Gods. 

GREEK ART IN INDIA : THE INDO ~ CORINTHIAN CAPITAL

Indo-Corinthian capitals are capitals crowning columns or pilasters.They can be found in the northwestern Indian subcontinent, and usually combine Hellenistic and Indian elements. These capitals are typically dated to the first centuries of the Common Era, and constitute an important aspect of Greco-Buddhist art. However, earlier Indian types reflecting Ionic influence are known from the 3rd century BCE, particularly with the Pataliputra capital.

Indo-Corinthian capitals display a design and foliage structure which is derived from the academic Corinthian capital developed in Greece. Its importation to India followed the road of Hellenistic expansion in the East in the centuries after the conquests of Alexander the Great. In particular the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, centered on Bactria (today's northern Afghanistan), upheld the type at the doorstep of India, in such places as Ai-Khanoum until the end of the 2nd century BCE. In India, the design was often adapted, usually taking a more elongated form and sometimes being combined with scrolls, generally within the context of Buddhist stupas and temples.

Indo-Corinthian capitals also incorporated figures of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas, usually as central figures surrounded by, and often under the shade of, the luxurious foliage of Corinthian designs. This practice was not limited to India, and also found favor in various areas of Central Asia. The depiction of figurines within the foliage of Corinthian capitals is not in itself an eastern development.

"Figural additions are very common in the classical world, and from an early period, usually take the form of heads or busts, but the Gandhara treatment is original in that the acanthus leaves form a canopy over it." ( Errington et al, 1992) 

Indo-Corinthian capitals were also used in combination with architectural elements, such as Buddhist stupas. One of the best examples was excavated and reconstituted at Sirkap.

Further, in the art of Gandhara, Indo-Corinthian capitals on top of separating pilasters, are used extensively in narrative friezes of the life of the Buddha. This usage continued as late as the 5th century CE.

Source: WikiMili 

GREEK INSCRIPTION FROM AN ALTAR OF GODDESS HESTIA IN TAJIKISTAN

In an inscription found in the Kuliab area, (ancient Western Greco-Bactria) and dated to 200-195 BCE, a Greek by the name of Heliodotos, dedicated a fire altar to the Greek Goddess Hestia. In the inscription which was on the altar, Heliodotos mentions the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I as 'the greatest of all kings', and his son Demetrius I as "Demetrios Kalinikos" (Demetrius the Glorious Conqueror):

Heliodotos inscription

τόνδε σοι βωμὸν θυώδη, πρέσβα κυδίστη θεῶν

Ἑστία, Διὸς κ(α)τ᾽ ἄλσος καλλίδενδρον ἔκτισεν

καὶ κλυταῖς ἤσκησε λοιβαῖς ἐμπύροις Ἡλιόδοτος

ὄφρα τὸμ πάντων μέγιστον Εὐθύδημον βασιλέων

τοῦ τε παῖδα καλλίνικον ἐκπρεπῆ Δημήτριον

πρευμενὴς σώιζηις ἐκηδεῖ(ς) σὺν τύχαι θεόφρον[ι]

"Heliodotos dedicated this fragrant altar for Hestia, venerable Goddess, illustrious amongst all, in the grove of Zeus, with beautiful trees; he made libations and sacrifices so that the greatest of all kings Euthydemos, as well as his son, the glorious, victorious and remarkable Demetrios, be preserved of all pains, with the help of Tyche with divine thoughts."

Source: Wikipedia

HIPPOSTRATOS ~ KING OF PUNJAB

Hippostratos (Greek: Ἱππόστρατος) was an Indo-Greek king who ruled central and north-western Punjab and Pushkalavati. Bopearachchi dates Hippostratos to 65 to 55 BCE whereas R. C. Senior suggests 60 to 50 BCE.
In Bopearachchi's reconstruction Hippostratos came to power as the successor to Apollodotus II, in the western part of his Kingdom, while the weak Dionysios ascended to the throne in the eastern part. Senior assumes that the reigns of Apollodotus II and Hippostratos overlapped somewhat; in that case, Hippostratos first ruled a kingdom situated to the west of Apollodotus' dominions.

Just like Apollodotus II, Hippostratos calls himself Soter, "Saviour", on all his coins, and on some coins he also assumes the title Basileos Megas, "Great King", which he inherited from Apollodotus II. This may support Senior's scenario that Hippostratos extended his kingdom after Apollodotus' death. The relationship between these two Kings remains uncertain due to lack of sources. Hippostratos did not, however, use the symbol of standing Athena Alkidemos, which was common to all other Kings thought to be related to Apollodotus II. The two Kings share only one monogram.

The quantity and quality of the coinage of Hippostratos indicate a quite powerful king. Hippostratos seems to have fought rather successfully against the Indo-Scythian invaders, led by the Scythian king Azes I, but was ultimately defeated and became the last western Indo-Greek king.

Hippostratos issued silver coins with a diademed portrait on the obverse, and three reverses. The first is the image of a king on prancing horse, a common type which was most frequently used by the earlier kings Antimachus II and Philoxenus. The second reverse also portrays a king on horseback, but the horse is walking and the king making a benediction gesture - this type resembles a rare type of Apollodotus II. The third is a standing goddess, perhaps Tyche.

Hippostratos struck several bronzes of types used by several kings: Serpent-legged deity (as used by Telephus) / standing goddess. Apollo/tripod (Apollodotus II, several earlier kings) Sitting Zeus-Mithras / horse, reminiscent of coins of Hermaeus.

SOURCE: Wikipedia

THE WORSHIP OF GREEK GOD PAN IN ANCIENT BANIAS (GOLAN HEIGHTS )

One of the shrines to Pan in Israel was situated at the northern site of Banias (Caesarea Philippi). Known as the Panion, it was in use from the 3rd century BCE through the 5th century CE and served the population of the town and its environs. When Pan’s cult was first established there, the site was far removed from any urban center. At its heart there was a large natural cave, beneath which one of the sources of the Jordan River issued. Literary sources provide little information about the site or the cultic activities that took place there, except for an interesting description by Eusebius, the 4th century bishop of Caesarea, who mentions a festival rite during which a live goat was cast down into the cave, where it was believed to disappear miraculously, owing to the God’s power. Archaeological excavations at Banias uncovered evidence of additional rituals, mainly cultic banqueting and the offering of simple gifts. Over the centuries, a city grew around the shrine, which itself expanded to incorporate the cults of Zeus, Hermes, Nemesis, the nymphs Echo and Maia, and even the emperor Augustus.

“Dear Pan”

In addition to the God’s public cult, Pan was also worshiped by private individuals, who sought His assistance and counsel, turning to Him with the familial invocation, “Dear Pan.” They held sacrifices, feasts, and celebrations in the presence of families and friends, and offered such gifts as figurines, votive plaques representing Pan and the Nymphs, and even cooking utensils, dining ware, and oil lamps, which were placed in the sacred cave at the culmination of the festivities.

SOURCE: The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Wikipedia

THE HISTORY BEHIND INDO-GREEK COINS

The Indo-Greek coins are a very important source of ancient Indian history. The term “Indo-Greek” is generally used because these kingdoms were almost always separated from Bactria and thus differed politically from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Their rule extended over a vast part of central Asia and north western South Asia. It included the modern areas of Afghanistan, north western part of Pakistan, the Indian provinces of Kashmir and Punjab. There were several dynasties and over 40 rulers of the Indo-Greek lineage who ruled over this extended time period. And surprisingly the main sources of information about the rule of these numerous kings is the numismatic evidence.

These kingdoms, in which there were already some Greek settlers called Yavanas or Yona (They are referred to as a community in Indian texts and history under western countries along with Sindhu, Madra, Kekeya, Gandhara and Kamboja as per the descriptions in the epic Mahabharata) became truly unique political entities with a mix of Greek and Indian culture, at least for the ruling elites. The dating ofIndo-Greek kingdoms is very approximate. Between 190 BCE and circa 165 BCE, Greek lands in India were divided among several Euthydemid kings,who fought among themselves and their Greco-Bactrian neighbors. These kingdoms extended to Western Punjab and had Indians of Sunga dynasty as their neighbors.

South Asia, and more precisely the modern state of India has experienced the incursion of several tribes throughout its history. Many of the famous military generals of the world had made their mark in the territories of South Asia. The Greek military genius Alexander the Great also attacked north western India albeit without much success. The invasion of Alexander took place in year 326 BCE. However, he succeeded in establishing several Greek colonies. He left some of his military generals and soldiers to occupy and rule his Indian and Central Asian conquests. These Greek generals came to be known as Indo-Greeks in the history. They ruled roughly during the period between mid-3rd century BCE, when Diodotus I established an independent kingdom, to early 1st century BCE when they were overwhelmed by the Parthians and the Shakas.

The Indo-Greek coins inaugurated a new phase in the history of South Asian coinage. These coins carried elaborate details about their issuing authority. The name, the issuing year of the coin and a portrait of the reigning monarch was die-struck with precision.
We can identify elaborate measures of coin circulation in the Indo-Greek territory. The coins circulated in the north of the Hindu Kush Mountains were mainly made of gold, silver, copper and nickel. They were struck according to Attic weight standard. The obverse of the coins carried the portrait of the issuing monarch. The reverse of the coin was marked by the depiction of Greek Gods and Goddesses. The name of the monarch and his royal titles were also mentioned in the reverse in Greek.

The coins which were circulated in the south of the Hindu Kush bear a more Indian touch. They were mostly made of silver and copper. Most of these coins are round, while some of them are square. These coins were struck according to Indian weight standard and bear the royal portrait on the obverse; but their reverse was marked by Indian religious symbols rather than Greek. These type of coins also carried bilingual and bi-script inscriptions using the Greek and Prakrit languages; and Greek and Kharosthi or Brahmi scripts.

The Indo-Greek coins have been found in large numbers in modern-day Afghanistan. The largest number of coins was discovered from Gardez. This hoard is known as the Mir Zakah hoard. It yielded 13,083 coins. Among them, 2,757 were Indo-Greek coins. Other major finds are the hoard found at Khisht Tepe near Qunduz and the coins found during excavations at the city of Ai-Khanoum.

Out of 42 Indo-Greek kings who ruled, about 34 kings are known only through their coins. Coins of such kings as Menander depicted them slowly progressing from their adolescence to old age;another indication of their long reigns. The high standard of coinage set by the Indo-Greeks worked as a model for several other Indian dynasties for a very long period of time. The representation of Indian religious figures and symbols in the Indo-Greek coins has a greater significance for the cultural history of South Asia. This illustrated the syncretism of the Indo-Greek rulers. A sort of cultural and religious fusion between India and Greece can be traced from these coins.

The last Indo-Greek king Strato II ended his rule circa 10 BCE, defeated by the Indo-Saka king Rajuvula.

 The Indo-Greek Kingdoms have strongly influenced their Indian subjects and Indian or nomad neighbors, as the nature of Indian art from the period suggests, along with the mention of the Yonas in Ashoka's Edicts.

Challenges in Analyzing Indo-Greek Kings and their coinage

The principal problem that occurs in the study of Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms is the number of their kings. More than 32 kings in not really more than 250 years.
 Lack of information is a common problem for historians of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Kingdoms.
Most of what we know about those kings is through numismatics. Although Greek and Roman literature speaks of about 6 Greco-Bactrian kings, coins number more than 32 kings.

It is suggested that some Bactrian kings could have been co-opted. 

There is proof of fighting among Greco-Bactrian Kings, soon after they conquered Indian territories in the Punjab. After this we have several kings who issued only monolingual coins (Greek), and others who issued almost only bilingual ones. This shows a geographical frontline between those Kingdoms somewhere in the Hindukush, some ruling over the Bactrian territories and the others over the Indian ones. A deep study of the coin legends shows that  Greco-Bactrian kings, at least at some point, used their titles in a different way from other Hellenistic kingdoms. In the memorial coinage of Agathokles (where on the obverse the King is commemorated and on the reverse is Agathokles himself), posthumous titles are added to kings. One of them, Theos (meaning "the God") is added to Euthydemos I, who is called like this in his coins, and to Diodotos I, whom we know that he let his son Diodotos II take part of kingship during his reign.

This, added to a somewhat intriguing title of a later Queen, Agathokleia "Theotropos", which can be put in parallel with the usual "Epitropos" title meaning "Regent", lets Widemann think about a designation of superiority by the Kings who take the title Theos. They were always the ones who made monolingual coins and ruled in Bactria, meanwhile the others, called Sôter ("Saviour") or Dikaios ("The Just"), are always issuing bilingual coins. Note that, since Eucratides' usurping of the throne c. 170 BCE, this system no longer applied.

Holding a large Kingdom, with a good half being populated by non-Greeks, with both parts of this Kingdom separated by the strong Hindukush mountains, knowing that civil war is always pretty close, is a pretty hard thing. This can be the reason for a co-opted system, with a king of Bactria ruling nominally all of the kingdom but in fact just the part West and North of the Hindukush, and a co-opted King ruling East of it, but with the Bactrian king having the precedence over the Indo-Greek one.

We also have the problem of the Saka invasions in the Ganges area. Bopearachchi talks about a Saka invasion c. 70 BCE which led to the rule of the mighty Maues at Taxila. Nevertheless, there is no proof of such an invasion.

Maues is a special case: First, he is the only Saka ruler to represent himself by a bust on his coin, the others showing themselves on a horse, like mounted warriors. Also, there is a rare coinage of him with a certain Queen Machènè -she is on the obverse with the Greek legend, and he is on the reverse with the kharosthi legend. Machènè seems to be a Greek name, and the character which is at the obverse is usually the most important. If they were married, or if she was Regent, they would be on the same side of the coin, like all others did, even Indo-Greek ones (see Calliope/Hermaios, or Agathokleia/Strato for example). So there is probably something different here.

Widemann's thesis is that Maues was the chief of the Sakas who settled in the Indo-Greek kingdom. This is highly possible: We have proof that Bactrian kings used Sakas to contain other invaders; many of them probably became somewhat Hellenized and went south to Punjab with their Greek rulers when they abandoned Bactria to the Yuezhei. The kind of representation that is found on Maues' coins supports this argument. Maybe Maues took an important place in a moment of crisis, such as being a vice-regent. We have a certain Telephos, an Indo-Greek King by his name at least, who called himself "son of Maues". Maybe he was the son of Machènè, and as Queen, she looked for the protection of the Sakas and so found Maues in a time of weakness? We must not forget that in Macedonia, Antigonos Doson, being the vice-regent for Philip, appears in an inscription with the title of king, although Philip gave him no title.

We know far too little to say what is right or wrong, but what is certain is that Maues was not a "Saka invader" from the North of the Hindukush. His coins show him like an Hellenized Saka, probably one of those settled in Indo-Greek Patalene or Surastene.

Following Bopearachchi, there was an almost-consensus that the last Indo-Greek kingdom survived in the Eastern Punjab until c. 10 CE, under the rule of Strato II or III. Nevertheless, taking one hypothesis of Bopearachchi in another way, there are some indications that could show us that there still existed one Indo-Greek kingdom around Alexandria Kapisa (Alexandria of the "Caucasus") until c. 15/20 CE.

The problem is related of the "Hermaios" coinage. Many coins bearing this name have been discovered, but the chronological field of those coins is really too large for only one King. In ancient times, kings never put a number after their name when they were not the first to take the name. For example, Ptolemaios XI issued "Ptolemaiou Basileôs", without any number. Even knowing this, Bopearachchi chose to put some of the "Hermaios coins" in a "barbarous imitations" section, due to their poor style and their belonging to the Hindukush area in the very late 1st century BCE, because that is the only really plausible solution that works with his theory on the Saka invasion c. 70 BCE.
Nevertheless, the Sakas who settled into independent kingdoms in India in the 1st century BCE seemed to have always made coins with their own representations and names. Even the Sakas of Seistan, West of the Hindukush, had at this time their own coinage, so why imitate the series of an Indo-Greek king? In the same way, there is coinage of Hermaios (at the obverse in Greek legend), but with a reverse of the koushan Kujula Kadphises (in Kharosthi).

More than seeing a simple imitation of a local currency, there is more probably an indication of a diplomatic message to the Greeks: a King named Hermaios allied himself with Kujula, or Kujula claimed to be in the succession of the Greek rulers of this area by minting this coin. Here we are dealing with the least known part of the Indo-Greek history, so for now it is impossible to say why this coin was minted, but what seems rather possible is the existence of several kings named Hermaios ruling an Indo-Greek kingdom centred around Alexandria Kapisa in the Hindukush at most until the invasion of Gondophares II c. 20 CE.

So here are three theses that could, if proven correct, change many of our views on Bactrian history and even also on Indian and Indo-Saka history. The co-opted system of rulership would make those Indo-Greek kingdoms even more exceptional and interesting to study, showing an example of how to deal with the problem of ruling two very different and separate areas in ancient times.

 EDITED FROM: ancient indian coin collection

THE KALASH PEOPLE OF NORTHERN PAKISTAN : RELIGION AND BELIEFS

The ancient ethnic group of the Kalash people live high in the remote mountains of Pakistan’s Hindu Kush (an extension of the Himalayas) deep in the valleys of Bumboret, Rumbur and Birir, near the inaccessible mountain border of Taliban-controlled zones of Afghanistan- more specifically, in the greater area of Chitral valley, in the NW Frontier Province of Pakistan. The 7,788m Tirich Mir, the highest peak of the Hindukush Mountain, dominates this 322km long exotic valley. Chitral shares much of its history and culture with the neighboring Hindu-Kush territories of Gilgit-Baltistan, a region sometimes called “Peristan” because of the common belief in fairies (peri) inhabiting the high mountains. One of the major attractions of Chitral is the Kalash valleys-the home of the Kafir-Kalash or "Wearers of the Black Robe".

For centuries, these light-skinned, pagan people have claimed to be the long-lost descendants of Alexander the Great’s world-conquering armies, who invaded this region in the 4th century BCE and are the direct descendants of the ancient Greek-Macedonian armies, who set up outposts in this region 2,300 years ago. How they got there is a mystery. How they manage to survive is another. The Kalash have links with Greece in almost everything but proximity. They dance around night-time fires; they make wine and indulge in ancient Olympic sports, such as wrestling and shot-put. Alexander the Great snatched the territory of modern-day Pakistan from the Persians but was unable to motivate his exhausted army any further than the Jhelum River. While occupying the region, the Macedonian Greek leader established settlements and is known to have contributed to the development of local hybrid cultures. Some of these cultures exist today; the non-Muslim Kalasha people who occupy an isolated valley in far northwestern Pakistan are widely speculated to have Greek heritage dating back to this time. Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE, and his successor in Pakistan, Seleucus, established the Seleucid Kingdom and later the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.

A Kalashi tribal man, kazi Khushnawaz was quoted saying;

“Long, long ago, before the days of Islam, Sikander e Aazem came to India. The Two- Horned One, whom you call Alexander the Great. He conquered the world and was a very great man, brave and dauntless and generous to his followers. When he left to go back to Greece, some of his men did not wish to go back with him but preferred to stay here. Their leader was a general called Shalakash (i.e.: Seleucus). With some of his officers and men, he came to these valleys and they settled here and took local women, and here they stayed. We, the Kalash, the Black Kafir of the Hindu Kush, are the descendants of their children. Still, some of our words are the same as theirs, our music and our dances, too; we worship the same Gods. This is why we believe the Greeks are our first ancestors.”

This is one of the most popular theories but, in fact, over the last decades, the Kalash people have called the attention of numerous anthropologists from all over the world, who conducted several studies, trying to figure out where from do they actually come from. Many of them have shown different results and conclusions, which means that the actual origin of the Kalash tribe remains unknown. Nevertheless, wherever do they come from, all anthropologists agree that the Kalash people have a clear European descending and many experts, scientists and authors agree that they show all the signs, rites, history and possibly the DNA of the ancient Greeks. For example, in 2014, the New York Times reported that “The Kalash people of Pakistan were found to have chunks of DNA from an ancient European population”. A study prepared by Thessaloniki’s Aristotle University English Language Department assistant professor Elisavet Mela-Athanasopoulou shows the common elements shared by the language of the Kalash ethnic group in the Himalayas and Ancient Greek. The Kalash people are best known for their unique and well-preserved culture, which has led to it being listed by UNESCO for consideration as an Intangible Cultural Heritage. As a matter of fact, this bid for recognition is an attempt by the Kalash to safeguard their culture.

Tragically, in the 19th century, the Kalash were brutally conquered by the Muslim Afghans. Their ancient temples and wooden idols were destroyed, their women were forced to burn their beautiful folk costumes and wear the burqa or veil, and the entire people were converted at sword point to Islam. Only a small pocket of this vanishing pagan race survived in three isolated valleys in the mountains of what would later become Pakistan. During the past decades, around 50% of the total population in Kalash have converted to Islam. In addition, a large population of original Muslims has decided to settle in the valleys and, as you may imagine, they are also building mosques and complaining about Kalash women for not being covered.

The Kalash have one of the most remarkable cultures on the planet. With a population of just over 3,500, the largest minority group in Pakistan, they are an oasis of colour and warmth in stark contrast to the seemingly inhospitable land that surrounds them. The valleys are idyllic and a heaven from the hustle and bustle of Pakistan’s major cities and tourist attractions. Walnut and jujube trees cling to the lower slopes, while carefully cultivated sugar-cane fields thrive along rivers at the bottom of each. It is here, deep within the Hindu Kush, that travellers come for a taste of another life, another time. Villages are little more than a scattering of wooden homes.

If the first thing that strikes you about the Kalash is their disarming hospitality, then the second is their appearance. The word “Kalash” means “black” and refers to the clothing worn by the women and girls. When it comes to the way the Kalash people dress, it is usually the female clothes that grab someone’s attention. Kalash men have abandoned their traditional goat-hair tunics for shalwar-kameez, the pajama-like outfits worn throughout Pakistan and Afghanistan. But Kalash women still wear cheos, baggy black cotton dresses brilliantly embroidered at the collars, cuffs, and hems. Glass beads drip from slender necklines. Long head-dresses are decorated with regimented waves of cowrie shell and elaborate embroidery, with blood reds, shocking pinks, Byzantine blues, canary yellows and emerald greens woven together in kaleidoscopic tapestries. Colourful wool headdresses cascade to the women’s shoulders. These kupas are packed with tight rows of cowry shells brought from the Indian coast. The shells are believed to embody prayers for fertility. Unlike many Muslims, Kalash women remain unveiled and are famous for their beauty.

Because the Kalash are pagans and worship a pantheon of gods including Dezao, the creator, or Jastak, the goddess of family, love, marriage, and birth, rather than Muhammad, they are free from the restraints of Purdah and they have very distinct customs from the neighboring communities. Due to their remoteness, very far away from the civilization, today, the Kalash people live a traditional, rural life which still remains pretty untouched. Most families rely upon the sun to have electricity, don’t have running water, are self-sufficient and live in wooden shacks. Life is quite hard here as they have very long, freezing winters and, unlike people from other parts of Pakistan, during winter, they don’t move to the cities but they remain in the valley.
There’s a popular misconception among neighboring Muslims that the Kalash are kafirs, or non-believers, but this is not true. The Kalash follow a strict code of customs and have myriad religious quirks, something that has brought them notoriety among anthropologists, writers -the Kalash are the mythical tribe depicted in Rudyard Kipling’s The Man Who Would Be King- and, most recently, travelers. Promiscuity is frowned upon and incest taboos dictate marriage must occur outside the valleys. The cost of fulfilling this cultural requirement is high. With an already depleted population, villagers often have little choice – either marry out or invite insiders, Muslims, to marry in.

Concepts of religion, spirits and good and evil are intertwined with daily life in the Kalash societies. Rituals are common and routinely practiced. Local families worship at their family’s group of shrines or altars, located at various point through the villages and the countryside of the valleys. These shrines represent a weaving of family lineage traditions with religious belief and daily spirituality. Other traditional customs involve marriage and childbirth; both are associated with unique rituals, including a common practice of “wife-elopement”, whereby a wife leaves her husband for another man, and the resulting divorce is settled (often semi-amicably) within the community. Menstruating women spend their days in a special “menstruating house”, separate from wider society, although this is one of only a few examples of women and men being segregated in Kalash culture. After a person’s death, several elaborate rituals are held in community halls, including one in a men’s temple which involves dancing to invoke good spirits and banish bad spirits. Graveyards are sensitive areas that some Kalash people avoid, due to their belief about spirits.
Another remarkable custom is that of the Bashali, a wooden hut in each village where, every month, the women retreat for the duration of their period. These houses don’t just represent a monthly break from work commitments for the women, but are a fundamental part of Kalash religious beliefs and demonstrate that everything, from location, behavior, gender, and objects, is separated into the spheres of pure (Onjesta) and impure (Pragata). The pollution theory also explains why men are permitted to look after the goats in the higher pastures while domestic chores remain strictly the women’s realm on the valleys below.

The Kalash are a culture where their festivals form a central point of their lives. Impure persons are not admitted to the celebrations without purifying themselves beforehand. The purifying ritual consists of fire and of brands of juniper being waved above the uninitiated’s head.

While during the harsh winter there is very little reason to celebrate, once the spring comes in the valleys, people are greeting the new season in a massive celebration. This is the yearly Joshi Festival that occurs at the end of each May. Milk plays an important role during this festival. But not just any milk, but milk that was saved ten days prior for this very special occasion. Kalash people use this milk to purify newborns and houses. Newborns are fed the milk, but it is thrown on houses and objects as well. At the end of the festival, leaves are thrown on participants’ heads to show the arrival of the spring.

Another festival of the Kalash is the Uchau and it is celebrated every autumn. But the most important of all festivals is the Chawmos, celebrated in the middle of the harsh winter, in the month of December. This festival marks and celebrates the end of the harvest and during this time, the animals are sacrificed to provide the food source for the winter.

Impure persons are not admitted to the celebrations without purifying themselves beforehand. The purifying ritual consists of fire and of brands of juniper being waved above the uninitiated’s head.

The Kalash have always been proud of their way of life and recently so is the rest of Pakistan. Traditionally, they were ostracized by their majority neighbors and forced deep into the mountains for their religious beliefs, they have been tolerated through gritted teeth. It is only recently, once communications improved and the tourist interest soared, that the Pakistani authorities have tried to understand this wonderful culture.

In April 2017, a Provincial Court in the northern city of Peshawar officially recognized the much-maligned community as a separate ethnic and religious group. As a result, the Kalash will be counted separately as Pakistan conducts its first national census in nearly 20 years. Recognition was the culmination of a lengthy fight in the predominantly Islamic country, where religious and other minorities often come under scrutiny by authorities and even attack by militants.  Recently, the Kalash gained their first-ever voice in government. Wazirzada Khan, 34, a political activist from the valley, was named to the provincial assembly under the law reserving seats for minorities. His nominator was Imran Khan, then a political leader in the province and now Pakistan’s prime minister. The Kalash are the indigenous owners of the land, forests, and mountains. We need laws to preserve our community,” Wazirzada Khan said.
In recent years, the Kalasha have attracted European researchers and support, resulting in community benefits including a school that teaches their dialect. But some visiting foreigners also have been victims of criminal and insurgent attacks.  Source of tension is the aid that the Kalash receive from NGOs and the government. The Greek government has shown interest in preserving the Kalash’s ancient way of life. In 2004, Athens funded the building of the Kalasha Cultural Center, which houses a museum of Kalash artifacts, including clothing, musical instruments, jewellery, and sculptures.

In 2009, a Taliban unit stole into the valleys at night and kidnapped Lerounis. They had been tipped off by locals sympathetic to their cause and came to the Kalasha Dur during a night when only two security guards were posted. One guard fled while the other stood his ground and was killed. Lerounis was taken swiftly across the Afghan border to Nuristan. The Greek teacher’s ransom, thought to be up to £1m, was paid and he returned to Greece. The security services will not let him return to Pakistan because they believe his presence in the country is dangerous.

Compulsory registration and guard

All foreigners who visit the Chitral Valley must register upon arrival, and are automatically assigned an armed guard from the local police force, free of charge. There are no exceptions to this rule. Why? The registration is required to monitor who is visiting this sensitive border region, where Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and China are all within a few hundred km of each other.  Chitral has been almost completely untouched by the problems which have plagued the tribal regions to the south, the main road through Chitral links regions which were held by the Taliban until relatively recently.

By Dimitra Stasinopoulou

REMAINS OF METAL WORKSHOPS DATING TO INDO-GREEK TIMES DISCOVERED BY PAKISTANI ARCHAEOLOGISTS

Pakistani archaeologists claim that they have discovered remains of metal workshops from the Indo-Greek period dating back to the 2nd century BCE.

The archaeologists from the University of Peshawar (UoP) made the discovery from a site in the Hayatabad neighbourhood of Peshawar, newspaper Dawn reported.

Professor Gul Rahim told the media that the site is located close to the border of the Khyber district, adding that excavation work at the site has been going on for the past three years.

He said that they have recovered coins dating back to the Indo-Greek period and estimated to be about 2,200 years old.

The professor said that the Indo-Greeks had migrated from Afghanistan to present- day Peshawar, and ruled the region for about 150 years.

"The relics recovered show that the site was some sort of a metal workshop as we have found iron melting pots, molds, trowels, knives and drills, which were used at the workshop," Rahim said.

The workshop also likely produced arrows, bows, daggers, and swords, headded.

"The site shows that the workshop was divided into blocks, whereas remains of furnaces, grinder stones and other vestiges of the era are still clearly visible," said the professor.

Professor Gul further said that "this marks the first discovery of an organised Ido-Greek workshop in the province so far." Meanwhile, Mohammad Naeem, an archaeological surveyor, said that "as compared to Buddhist sites that were built using brick masonry, this site was made from clay so it was difficult to preserve it. He said that remains of the Indo-Greek period have also been found in Gor Khatri archaeological complex.

Jan Gul, an MPhil scholar at the UoP, said that it was the first time that students were able to see Indo-Greek remains, as previously only Buddhist and Mughal relics had been studied. 

SOURCE:  https://www.dnaindia.com/

ALEXANDER'S GENERALS : ATTALOS

Attalos was one of the leading phalanx battalion commanders in Alexander the Great’s army, gaining fame for his actions in Bactria and India.

Following Alexander’s death, Attalos initially sided with Meleager against the leading generals in the power struggle that ensued in Babylon. Not long after, however, as the tide began to turn against the infantry, Perdiccas successfully bribed Attalos to defect and join the generals by marrying the veteran warlord to Atlante, his sister.

It proved a wise move. From then on, Attalos proved a loyal subordinate to Perdiccas during the initial years of the Wars of the Successors.

When Perdiccas led the royal army down to Egypt in 320 BCE to confront Ptolemy, the regent gave Attalus command of the accompanying fleet. Attalos survived the disaster that ensued for Perdiccas and his supporters, though he later received word that Perdiccas’ mutinous army had murdered his wife in cold blood and sentenced him to death. Nevertheless, he managed to escape with the fleet and regrouped with the remaining Perdiccans first at the island fortress of Tyre, and then later in Pisidia.

Attalos fought in a battle against Antigonus ‘the one-eyed’ in 319 BCE. He was taken as a prisoner of war, up until 317 BCE,when he and some of his comrades tried to escape,by seizing control of the castle where they were imprisoned. However,before they could leave,the castle was surrounded by troops. The last thing we know about Attalus is that he and his companions defended the castle for 16 months,and then they had to surrender. After that, he disappears from our sources.

Screenshot by © Malay Archer

SOURCE: FACEBOOK PAGE 'Turning Points of the Ancient World'